Table 1.
Arboviruses investigated in Ghana (1955–2022).
| Year of Sampling/ Detection |
Study Design | Number of People/Sample/Cases | Frequencies (Positives/ Deaths) |
Region (Place) | Detection Method | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Yellow fever (Flaviviridae) | Human cases | |||||
| 1955 | Cross-sectional | 12 cases, 155 total sera | 3 confirmed | Brong Ahafo (Kintampo) | Histology, Serology | [21] |
| 1959 | Cross-sectional | 76 sera | 38.3% CFR | Greater Accra (Tema) | Serology—Complement fixation | [22] |
| 1963 | Case report | 3 cases | NI | Ashanti (/Kumasi), Northern (Damongo) | NI | [23] |
| 1969 | Case report | 5 cases 303 cases |
3 deaths 72 deaths |
Northen (Tamale) Upper East (Bolgatanga) |
NI | [23] |
| 1970 | Case report Case report |
11 cases NI |
14 deaths 60 deaths |
Eastern (Akwatia) Eastern (Asikasu) |
NI Serology, Histopathology |
[23] [24] |
| 1970–1975 | Case report | 12 cases | 7 deaths | Brong Ahafo (Dormaa Ahenkro, Berekum, Hwidiem) | NI | [23] |
| 1977–1978 | Cross-sectional | 136 cases | 34 deaths | Upper East (Jirapa) | Serology, Histopathology | [23] |
| 1978–1979 | Cross-sectional | 239 cases 340 cases |
56 deaths 52 deaths |
Eastern (Maase, Somanya, Akuse, Akosombo, Nkwakwa, Asamankese) Volta (Hohoe, Kpandu) |
Histopathology Serology, Histopathology |
[23] |
| 1979–1980 | Cross-sectional | 104 cases | 41 deaths (39% CFR) | Brong Ahafo (Wenchi, Techiman, Hwidiem, Berekum, Dormaa Ahenkro) Eastern (Akwatia) |
Serology, Histopathology | [23] |
| 1979 | Case report | NI | 4 deaths | Greater Accra | Serology, Histopathology | [25] |
| 1980 | Case report | 6 cases 2 cases |
4 deaths 2 deaths |
Brong Ahafo Volta |
Serology, Histopathology | [24] |
| Yellow fever (Flaviviridae) | Human cases | |||||
| 1981 | Case report | 6 cases | 3 deaths | Whole Ghana | Serology, Histopathology | [24] |
| 1982 | Case report | 7 cases | 5 deaths | Whole Ghana | Serology, Histopathology | [24] |
| 1983 | Case report | 205 cases 53 cases 55 cases 12 cases |
120 deaths 36 deaths 8 deaths 12 deaths |
Northern (Bole, Damongo, Gambaga, Tamale) Upper East (Bawku, Bolgatanga) Upper West (Wa, Tumu) Brong Ahafo (Kintampo) |
Serology, Histopathology | [24] |
| 1983–1984 | Case report | 372 cases | 201 deaths | Upper regions (Jirapa, Wa, Bolgatanga, Navrongo, Nandom, Jirapa) | Serology, Histopathology | [25] |
| 1993–1994 | Case report | 118 cases | 26 deaths | Upper West (Jirapa) | Serology, Histopathology | [25] |
| 1996–1997 | Case report | 33 cases | 5 deaths | Upper East (Bolgatanga etc.), Northern (Mamprusi) | Serology, Histopathology | [25] |
| 2005 | Case report | 3 cases | None | Upper West (Jirapa, Wa, Nadowli) | NI | [26] |
| 2011 | Case report | 2 cases 3 cases |
1 death None |
Northern region/Sawla Kalba Greater Accra (Ledzokuku) |
NI | [26] |
| 2016 | Case report | 4 suspected | None | Brong Ahafo, Volta | NI | [27] |
| 2021 | Case report | 70 cases | 35 deaths (17% CFR). PCR positive | Savannah, Upper West, Bono, and Oti | Serology—IgM, PCR, Plaque reduction neutralization assay. | [28] |
| 2022 | Case report | 71 cases | 71 IgM positive | Whole Ghana (13 regions) | Serology | [29] |
| Dengue (Flaviviridae) | Human cases | |||||
| 1959 | Cross-sectional | 76 sera | Not specific | Greater Accra (Tema) | Serology | [22] |
| 2005 | Cross-sectional | 11 isolates | 1 PCR positive | Ghana-Finland | Serology—IgG/IgM, RT-PCR | [30] |
| 2011–2014 | Cross-sectional | 218 children | 3.2% IgM, 21.6% IgG | Greater Accra (Kpeshie), Brong Ahafo (Kintampo), Upper East (Navrongo) | Serology—IgG/IgM, RT-PCR | [31] |
| 2012–2014 | Cross-sectional | 236 sera | 87.2% antibody prevalence | Greater Accra (Korlebu) | Serology, Plaque reduction neutralization tests (PRNT) | [32] |
| 2013 | Cross-sectional | 360 sera | 1.9% IgM, 3.6% IgG | Whole Ghana (ten regions) | Serology—IgG, IgM, RT-PCR | [33] |
| 2013–2015 | Cross-sectional | 188 sera | 82 (43.6%) IgG | Ashanti (Agogo, Kumasi), Brong Ahafo (Techiman) | Serology—IgG, IgM, RT-PCR | [34] |
| 2014 | Cross-sectional | 417 sera | 29.7% IgG | Whole Ghana (ten regions) | Serology—IgG | [35] |
| 2014–2016 | Cross-sectional | 150 patients | 32 IgM positive, 4 PCR positives | Greater Accra, Central, Upper East | Serology—IgG, IgM, RT-PCR | [36] |
| 2016–2017 | Cross-sectional | 700 children | 2 PCR positives, IgG/IgM positive | Greater Accra, Brong Ahafo | Serology—IgG, IgM, RT-PCR | [37] |
| 2016–2017 | Cross-sectional | 260 febrile patients | 69.23% antibody positive | Greater Accra | Serology—IgG, IgM, NS1, RT-PCR | [38] |
| 2019 | Cross-sectional | 270 participants | 12.6% IgG, 2.2% IgM positives | Central (Cape Coast, Komenda) | Serology—IgG/IgM | [39] |
| Human cases | ||||||
| West Nile (Flaviviridae) | ||||||
| 1959 | Cross-sectional | 76 sera | Not specific | Greater Accra (Tema) | Serology—Complement fixation | [22] |
| 2009 * | Cross-sectional | 1324 plasma | Children = 4.8% IgG, 2.4% IgM positive | Ashanti (Kumasi) | Serology—IgG/IgM, PCR | [40] |
| Zika (Flaviviridae) | ||||||
| 2012–2014 | Cross-sectional | 236 sera | 12.9% antibody positive | Greater Accra (Korlebu) | Serology—IgG/IgM, PRNT | [32] |
| 2016–2017 | Cross-sectional | 160 patients | 20.6% antibody positive | Greater Accra | Serology—IgG/IgM | [41] |
| Chikungunya (Togaviridae) | ||||||
| 1959 | Cross-sectional | 76 sera | Not specific | Greater Accra (Tema) | Serology—Complement fixation | [22] |
| 2016–2017 | Cross-sectional | 260 patients | 27.69% antibody positive | Greater Accra | Serology-NS1/IgG/IgM, RT-PCR | [38] |
| Onyongnyong (Togaviridae) | ||||||
| 1954 | Cross-sectional | 86 travelers to Britain | 3 seropositive | NI | Serology—Complement fixation, Hemagglutination inhibition, Immunofluorescence assay | [42] |
| Ilesha (Peribunyaviridae) | ||||||
| 1959 | Cross-sectional | 76 sera | 28.5% (30–44 years) positive | Greater Accra (Tema) | Serology—Complement fixation | [22] |
| Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever (Nairoviridae) | ||||||
| 2011 | Longitudinal study | 188 sera | 5.7% seroprevalence | Greater Accra, Ashanti (Kumasi) | Serology—IgG/IgM | [43] |
| Yellow fever (Flaviviridae) | Mosquito surveillance | |||||
| 1955 | Cross-sectional | 299 mosquitoes | No arbovirus detected | Brong Ahafo (Kintampo) | Serology, Histology | [21] |
| 1999–2000 | Cross-sectional | 2804 households | No arbovirus detected | Northern (Damongo), Upper East (Bolgatanga), Upper West (Jirapa, Tumu) | RT-PCR | [44] |
| Dengue (Flaviviridae) | ||||||
| 1999–2000 | Cross-sectional | 2804 households | No arbovirus detected | Northern (Damongo), Upper East (Bolgatanga), Upper West (Jirapa, Tumu) | RT-PCR | [44] |
| 2015–2016 | Cross-sectional | 36 mosquitoes per pool | Only mosquito-specific virus detected | Greater Accra. Volta. Western. Ashanti. Upper West. Savannah. | RT-PCR | [45] |
| 2018–2019 | Cross-sectional | 1930 Aedes mosquitoes, 75 pools. | No arbovirus detected | Northern (Larabanga, Mole) | RT-PCR | [46] |
| Zika (Flaviviridae) | ||||||
| 2018–2019 | Cross-sectional | 1930 Aedes mosquitoes, 75 pools. | No arbovirus detected | Northern (Larabanga, Mole) | RT-PCR | [46] |
| West Nile (Flaviviridae) | ||||||
| 2015–2016 | Cross-sectional | 36 mosquitoes per pool | Only mosquito-specific virus detected | Greater Accra. Volta. Western. Ashanti. Upper West. Savannah. | RT-PCR | [45] |
| Chikungunya (Togaviridae) | ||||||
| 2015–2016 | Cross-sectional | 36 mosquitoes per pool | Only mosquito-specific virus detected | Greater Accra. Volta. Western. Ashanti. Upper West. Savannah. | RT-PCR | [45] |
| 2018–2019 | Cross-sectional | 1930 Aedes mosquitoes, 75 pools. | No arbovirus detected | Northern (Larabanga, Mole) | RT-PCR | [46] |
| Tick surveillance | ||||||
| Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (Nairoviridae) | ||||||
| 2011 | Longitudinal | 144 ticks, 97 pools | 5 positive pools | Greater Accra, Ashanti (Kumasi) | Serology—IgG/IgM, RT-PCR | [43] |
| 2016–2017 | Cross-sectional (domestic dogs, goats, and cattle) | 2016 ticks, 912 pools | No CCHFV detected | Greater Accra (Accra), Northern (Tamale) | RT-PCR | [47] |
| Dugbe (Nairoviridae) | ||||||
| 2015 | Cross-sectional (domestic dogs and cattle) | 153 ticks, 29 pools | 2 positive pools | Greater Accra (Mobore) | RT-PCR | [48] |
| 2016 | Cross-sectional (domestic dogs and cattle) | 354 ticks, 93 pools | 1 positive pool | Volta (Hohoe) | RT-PCR | [49] |
| Odaw (Phenuiviridae) | ||||||
| 2015 | Cross-sectional (domestic dogs and cattle) | 153 ticks, 29 pools | 4 positive pools | Greater Accra (Pokuase, Korle-Gonno) | RT-PCR | [48] |
| 2016 | Cross-sectional (domestic dogs and cattle) | 354 ticks, 93 pools | 4 positive pools | Greater Accra (Accra) | RT-PCR | [49] |
| Balambala (Phenuiviridae) | ||||||
| 2016 | Cross-sectional (domestic dogs and cattle) | 354 ticks, 93 pools | 2 positive pools | Upper west (Jirapa) | RT-PCR | [49] |
| Alkhurma haemorrhagic fever (Flaviviridae) | ||||||
| 2016–2017 | Cross-sectional (domestic dogs, goats, and cattle) | 2016 ticks, 912 pools | No AHFV detected | Greater Accra (Accra), Northern (Tamale) | RT-PCR | [47] |
| Sand fly/Biting midges surveillance | ||||||
| No available record | ||||||
* Year of publication of research paper if year of sampling/detection is not specified in the literature; NI = Not indicated in the literature; CFR = Case Fatality Rate.