Table 4.
Bacteria BFs’ contribution in the inactivation of antibiotics and antibiotic treatment failure.
| Reasons for the Failure of Antibiotics | BF Function | Factors | Inactivated Antibiotics | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hampered antibiotic penetration | Anti-spread barrier | EPS | Ampicillin Ciprofloxacin |
[126] |
| Presence of antibiotic-degrading enzymes | To provide β-lactamases (β-LS) |
↑ β-LS | Ampicillin | [127] |
| Imipenem Ceftazidime | ||||
| Increased BF resistance | To provide eDNA |
↑ eDNA ↓ Mg2+ |
Cationic Peptides Aminoglycosides |
[128,129,130] |
| Presence of persistent cells | To cause gradients in nutrients and oxygen concentration To promote differentiation in cell growth |
Endogenous stress TA 1-systems |
Rifampicin Aminoglycosides | [131] |
| Presence of dormant cells | ↓ Functions ↓ Energy ↓ Biosynthesis |
Fluoroquinolones | [132] | |
| ↑ Resistance to stress | To cause adaptive stress responses by heterogeneity | Changes in component/processes target of antibiotics | Ofloxacin Gentamicin Meropenem Colistin | [133] |
| Ofloxacin | [134] | |||
| ↑ Export of membrane proteins | To up-regulate the production of some efflux pumps | ↑ Efflux pumps QS |
Multidrugs | [135] |
| Azithromycin | [136] | |||
| Genetic diversity | To act as a reservoir of genetic diversity by promoting plasmids transfer | Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) eDNA QS |
Aminoglycosides | [137] |
1 TA = toxin/antitoxin; ↑ = improved, higher, increased; ↓ = reduced, decreased.