Table 1.
Available targets in periodontal anti-inflammation and regeneration.
| Targeting Pathway | Target Cell | Regulatory Mechanism | Regulating Molecules | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Regulator of G-protein signaling (RGS) | Osteoclasts | regulating calcium oscillations and thus osteoclast differentiation | RGS10, the smallest protein in the RGS family | Almutairi et al. [17] |
| RGS12, a multi-domain and the largest protein in the RGS family | Yang et al. [18] | |||
| Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway | Periodontal ligament stem cells (PDLSCs) | reducing inflammatory cytokine biosynthesis and bone resorption, regulating osteoblastic differentiation of PDLSCs | Cerebellar degeneration-related protein 1 transcript (CDR1as), a newly discovered circular RNA (circRNA) | Li et al. [21] |
| LL-37, a human antimicrobial peptide (AMP) | Yu et al. [22] | |||
| Mineral trioxide aggregate (MTA), a bioactive material | Wang et al. [23] | |||
| The NF-κB signaling | Osteoclast, Macrophages | Inhibiting osteoclast formation and bone resorptive activity, regulating inflammation | NF-κB activator 1 (Act1), mainly expressed in immune cells | Pathak et al. [25] |
| Potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KH2PO4), a kind of inorganic phosphate into the solution | Xu et al. [26] | |||
| Mineral trioxide aggregate (MTA), a biocompatible material | Wang et al. [27] | |||
| The Wnt signaling | Periodontal ligament stem cells (PDLSCs) | Regulating growth, development, and homeostasis of the organism, controlling cell fate such as proliferation, differentiation, canceration, and apoptosis | Sclerostin and DKK1, Wnt signaling inhibitors | Witcher et al. [29] |
| Berberine, a benzylisoquinoline plant alkaloid from Coptidis Rhizoma | Zhang et al. [30] | |||
| Baicalein, an active ingredient extracted from the traditional Chinese herb Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi | Chen et al. [31] | |||
| Parthenolide (PTL), an active constituent of the plant Tanacetum parthenium | Zhang et al. [32] | |||
| Romosozumab, a monoclonal antibody against sclerostin | Paik et al. [33] & Ishibashi et al. [34] | |||
| Escherichia coli-derived Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) | Xing et al. [35] | |||
| Erythropoietin (EPO), a glycoprotein cytokine | Zheng et al. [36] | |||
| Estrogen, 17β-estradiol | Jiang et al. [37] | |||
| Kaempferol, a type of flavonoid | Nie et al. [38] | |||
| Vitamin K2, a product of intestinal bacterial metabolism in the body; menaquinone 4 (MK-4), one of the most active members among the vitamin K2 family | Cui et al. [39] |