Table 3.
Studies Investigating the Impact of Interventions on fMRI Functional Connectivity in ADHD
| Study | Analysis Method | Task (Contrast) | NADHD (% Male) | AgeADHD, Years, Mean (SD) | Medication History | Medication Washout | ADHD Comorbidities | Intervention/Comparison | Design | On Intervention > Off Intervention | Off Intervention > On Intervention |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mowinckel et al., 2017 (54) | Bayesian hierarchical mixed model | Value-based decision making task (unspecified) | 20 (35%) | 29.9 (1.41) | Current stimulant use (100%) | >20 hours | None | Acute MPH (10–40 mg of regularly prescribed formulation)/placebo | Randomized, double-blind, crossover | Auditory network ↔ ECN | Within DMN and VIS |
| Posner et al., 2011 (62) | DCM | Fearful faces task with priming (fearful faces) | 15 (87%) | 13.5 (1.2) | Current stimulant use (100%) | >48 hours | ODD/CD (% unspecified) | Acute stimulant (regularly prescribed formulation and dose)/off medication | Cross-over | None | None (main group comparison); BIL amygdala ↔ BIL lateral PFC (secondary nonparametric analysis) |
| Querne et al., 2017 (44) | ICA | Flanker task (unspecified) | 11 (unspecified) | 9.8 (1.7) | Medication-naïve (100%) | – | None | 4 weeks MPH (20–30 mg extended release)/off medication | Crossover (off medication → MPH) | DMN composed of anterior and posterior regions; anticorrelation between DMN and BIL anterior frontal, striatum, dorsal ACC, R occipitoparietal cortex, L cerebellum (direct group comparison not reported) | DMN composed posterior regions only (direct group comparison not reported) |
| Rubia et al., 2009 (41) | SBC | CPT (targets > nontargets) | 13 (100%) | 12.5 (1.3) | Medication-naïve (100%) | – | ODD/CD (8%) | Acute MPH (0.3 mg/kg)/placebo | Randomized, double-blind, crossover | L caudate/putamen ↔ R caudate/putamen | None |
| Rubia et al., 2019 (72) | SBC | Neurofeedback | Active group: 18 (100%); control group: 13 (100%) | Active group: 14 (2); control group: 14 (2) | Active group: current use of stimulants (83%), withdrew from medication for duration of study (17%); control group: current stimulant use (69%), withdrew from medication for duration of study (23%), medication-naïve (8%) | >7 days for those willing to withdraw from medication | ODD/CD (% unspecified) | fMRI neurofeedback of R IFC/fMRI neurofeedback of L parahippocampal gyrus | 11-run parallel groups active control (randomized single-blind control trial) | Relative to first run and control: R IFC (BA 45) ↔ R caudate, ACC; R IFC (BA 44) ↔ R ACC | Relative to first run: R IFC (BA 45) ↔ L parahippocampal, hippocampus, lingual, BIL PCC, precuneus, calcarine, thalamus, caudate, putamen, pallidum; R IFC (BA 44) ↔ BIL precuneus, PCC, hippocampus, parahippocampal, lingual, thalamus; relative to control: R IFC (BA 45) ↔ BIL PCC, precuneus, calcarine; R IFC (BA 44) ↔ BIL PCC, precuneus, hippocampus, parahippocampal, lingual, thalamus |
| Schulz et al., 2018 (69) | PPISPM | Emotional GNG (correct go trials cued by sad faces) | 25 (56%) | 34.8 (9.8) | Current use of medication, class unspecified (8%); past stimulant and/or nonstimulant use but medication-free at time of study (36%); medication-naïve (56%) | 2 weeks | None | 5 weeks LDX (30–70 mg)/placebo | Randomized, single-blind, crossover | None | L amygdala ↔ R SPG, L STG; R amygdala ↔ L IFC, STG, R SPG |
| Sheridan et al., 2010 (70) | BSC | Delayed match to sample task (encoding) | 5 (0%) | 14.8 (2.4) | Current stimulant use (60%); current stimulant and nonstimulant use (20%); current stimulant and SSRI use (20%) | 24 hours (for stimulants only) | Unspecified | Acute stimulant (regularly prescribed formulation and dose)/off medication | Crossover | BIL MFG ↔ cerebellar vermisa | BIL MFG ↔ striatuma, L MFGa, medial PFCa, hippocampusa, ITGa, R TPJa, insulaa, linguala |
| Wong and Stevens, 2012 (71) | ICA | Sternberg item recognition task (unspecified) | 18 (83%) | 14.6 (2) | Current stimulant use (100%) | 48 hours | ODD (6%) | Acute stimulant (regularly prescribed formulation and dose)/placebo | Randomized, double-blind, crossover | Within ACC, medial frontal, PCC, precuneus, cuneus, lingual, SFG, cingulate, R postcentral, precentral, L IFC, SMG, MTG, angular regions | Within PCC, precuneus |
| Wu et al., 2017 (60) | ICA | Verbal n-back task (2-back > 0-back) | 22 (100%) | 12.71 (1.55) | Past stimulant use but medication-free at time of study (23%); medication-naïve (77%) | >4 weeks | ODD (18%) | Acute MPH (10 mg)/placebo | Randomized, double-blind, crossover | Within ECN (R precuneus, L PCC) | None |
ACC, anterior cingulate cortex; ADHD, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder; BIL, bilateral; BA, Brodmann area; BSC, beta series correlation; CD, conduct disorder; CPT, continuous performance task; DCM, dynamic causal modeling; DMN, default mode network; ECN, executive control network; fMRI, functional magnetic resonance imaging; GNG, go/no-go; gPPI, generalized psychophysiologic interaction; ICA, independent component analysis; IFC, inferior frontal cortex; ITG, inferior temporal gyrus; L, left; LDX, lisdexamfetamine; MFG, middle frontal gyrus; MPH, methylphenidate; MTG, middle temporal gyrus; ODD, oppositional defiant disorder; PCC, posterior cingulate cortex; PFC, prefrontal cortex; PPI, psychophysiological interaction; R, right; SBC, seed-based correlation; SFG, superior frontal gyrus; SMG, supramarginal gyrus; SPG, superior parietal gyrus; SSRI, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor; STG, superior temporal gyrus; TPJ, temporoparietal junction; VIS, visual network.
Correction for multiple comparisons not specified.