Fig. 3.

Simple summary of the effects of EE in AD. EE causes an increase in mature NGF and BDNF levels, leading to activation of the MAPK/ERK and PI3k-Akt pathways. Consequently, activation of these pathways leads to increased cell proliferation, increased synaptic plasticity, neurogenesis and increased cell survival in the brain. Activation of the PI3k-Akt pathway could also inhibit tau hyperphosphorylation and reduce Aβ expression levels in the brain. EE also indirectly downregulates the JNK pathway as it facilitates the conversion of proNGF to mature NGF. Downregulation of the JNK pathway mainly leads to reduced cell death in the brain, but could also reduce tau hyperphosphorylation and decrease Aβ expression levels