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GM metabolites as possible contributing mechanisms of pain
| Hormones (or compounds acting as hormones) | References | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Direct effect from GM | Short chain fatty acids | Butyrate | [69, 82] |
| Propionate | [69, 82] | ||
| Neurotransmitters | Serotonin | [83] | |
| Dopamine | [84, 85] | ||
| Noradrenaline | [86] | ||
| Glutamate | [87, 88] | ||
| GABA | [87, 88] | ||
| Indirect effect from GM | Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA) | Cortisol | [89] |
| GI hormones | Leptin | [90–92] | |
| Ghrelin | [93] | ||
