Table 1.

Tumor cell-derived vaccines.

Vaccine type	Modification strategy	Feature	Effect of vaccine	Ref.
Whole tumor cell vaccine	Genetic engineering	Expresses GM-CSF	Increases DC antigen presentation ability, promotes DC survival	[79]
		Expresses high levels of FAP	Targets tumor cells and tumor-associated fibroblasts	[83]
		Inhibits MYC expression	Appropriate targets to induce and improve tumor cell immunogenicity	[88]
		Knocks out Id2 gene in mouse neuroblastoma cells	Imparts immunogenicity to tumor cells in hosts with normal immunity, acting synergistically with costimulatory CTLA-4 checkpoint inhibitors	[89]
	Surface engineering	Inactivates tumor cells surface couple with DOX-loaded liposomes and anti-PD-1 antibodies	Delays tumor growth, reduces lung metastases, increases overall survival time	[90]
	Cell hybridization	H-2b GL261 glioma cells fuse with H-2d RAG-neo cells	Increases cytokine production by immune cells, produces high levels of antitumor cytokines	[85]
Tumor cell-derived nanovaccines	Genetic engineering	Transduces FAP cDNA into tumor cells	Targets tumor parenchyma and stroma, promotes tumor iron droop	[101]
Tumor cell lysate	Genetic engineering	Blocks STAT3 signaling pathway	Inhibits tumor cell proliferation, promotes tumor cell apoptosis, promotes the generation of immune memory for HCC, prolongs the survival period of mice	[106]
	Surface engineering	Tumor cell lysates are covalently attached to polydopamine nanoparticles	Enhances antigen uptake and maturation of BMDCs, as well as the expression of surface molecules and cytokine secretion associated with Th1	[105]
	Internal cargo loading	Tumor cell lysates are loaded inside and on PLGA nanoparticle surfaces	Maximizes the delivery load of tumor antigens, stimulates a broader cancer-specific immune response	[21]
		Oxidized tumor cell lysates are loaded inside PLGA nanoparticles	Heightens immunity stimulation	[102]
		Tumor cell lysates are loaded in chitosan nanoparticles of which, the surface has been modified with mannose	Activates DCs in vitro and in vivo, and prevents tumor growth	[108]
		CpG and tumor cell lysates are loaded into temperature-sensitive PLEL hydrogels	Inhibits CT26 colon cancer in mice, forms immune memory, reduces tumor recurrence rate, inhibits distant tumors.	[111]
		Tumor cell lysates are loaded into multiarmed poly(ethylene glycol) (8-arm PEG)/oxidized dextran dynamically cross-linked hydrogels	Recruits DCs, releases antigens gradually, induces a tumor-specific immune response, prevents tumor recurrence after surgery in mouse models	[112]
		Self-assembled poly(l-valine) hydrogels	Recruits, activates, and matures DCs in vitro and in vivo	[113]
		PEG-b-poly(l-alanine) hydrogels are loaded with a dual checkpoint inhibitor, tumor antigen that is continuously released, and GM-CSF	Increases the proportion of activated effector CD8+ T cells in spleens and tumors of immunized mice, and decreases the proportion of Tregs	[114]
Cancer stem cell vaccine	Surface engineering	SA-GM-CSF surface-modified bladder CSCs	Increases the number of CD8+ T cells by the activation of tumor specific T cells	[62]
	Genetic engineering	Overexpression of epithelial cell molecule mucin 1	Enhances innate and adaptive immune responses and immune memory	[94]
Tumor whole RNA vaccine	Encapsulate into cationic liposomes	Total tumor-derived RNAs are encapsulated by DOTAP nanoparticles	Nonspecifically targets the lung, heart, liver, and lymphatic organs, activates systemic and intratumoral immunity within 24 h	[123]
		Total tumor-derived RNAs are loaded into lipid nanoparticles	Promotes DC maturation, induces T lymphocytes to kill HEPA1-6 cells, prevents and inhibited the growth of HCC in vivo	[124]