Table 3.

Tumor cell membrane-derived vaccines.

Type of engineering	Engineering strategy	Effect of vaccine	Ref.
Genetic engineering	KillerRed (KR)-expressing plasmid is transfected into tumor cells to express KR protein on the cell membrane surface	KR proteins produces cytotoxic reactive oxygens species under laser irradiation at 510–600 nm	[184]
Surface engineering	Cholesterol-modified CpG and DC-SIGN aptamer are inserted onto tumor cell membrane vesicles	Targets DCs, improves delivery to lymph nodes, increases the nanovaccine efficacy	[179]
	B7-1 and IL-12 bind to glycosylphosphatidylinositol, which anchors them to tumor cell membrane vesicles	Induces antitumor protective immunity, inhibits tumor growth, improves the survival rate of mice with squamous cell carcinoma	[180]
	4T1 (breast cancer) cell membranes expressing photosensitizer was fused with recombinant liposome containing monophosphoryl lipid A adjuvant	Promotes generation of cytotoxic T lymphocytes after DC maturation and photodynamic therapy, eradicates primary tumors, inhibits metastasis	[184]
Internal cargo loading	4T1 (breast cancer) cell membranes were coated with liquid metal nanoparticles	Promotes maturation and activation of antigen-presenting cells, inhibits tumor growth in mouse breast tumor model	[32]
	4T1 (breast cancer) cell membrane were coated with PSiNPs@Au	Activates antitumor immune response in vivo, reverses the immunosuppressive microenvironment to eliminate the established solid tumor and inhibits its metastasis	[192]
	B16–F10 cell membranes were coated with PLGA nanoparticles containing CpG sequences	Activates antigen-presenting cells to secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and IL-12, promotes DC maturation to provide a strong antitumor response	[174]
	4T1 (breast cancer) cell membrane were coated with PLGA nanoparticles containing imiquimod	Increases CD8+ T cells, decreases regulatory T cells, increases effector memory T cells in the spleen	[67]
	MCF-7 cell membranes were coated with PLGA nanoparticles containing indocyanine green	Displays homologous targeting in vitro and tumor targeting in vivo, with high spatial resolution and penetration depth	[187]