Table 1.
Reported causes of upper GI bleeding proximal to the ligament of Treitz in patients with COVID-19 infection
| Lesion | Putative Mechanisms | Selected References |
|---|---|---|
| Angiodysplasia | 1 case reported in a large series of 87 EGDs performed mostly for overt GI bleeding | Vanella et al,16 2021 |
| Aortoenteric fistula | Case report | González-Sagredo et al,65 2021 |
| Dieulafoy lesion | 1 case reported in a large series of 87 EGDs mostly performed for overt GI bleeding | Vanella et al,16 2021 |
| Cameron lesion associated with acute COVID-19 infection | Case report Cameron lesion/ulcer was caused by a large paraesophageal hernia that progressed to cause acute gastric volvulus because of patient’s poor nutritional status from COVID-19 infection |
Deliwala et al,68 2021 |
| Esophageal candidiasis (without bleeding) | 2 cases among 87 patients undergoing EGD | Vanella et al,16 2021 |
| Esophageal ulcer | 1 case caused by primary COVID-19 infection 5 cases reported in a large endoscopic series of 87 EGDs performed mostly for overt GI bleeding |
Vanella et al,16 2021, Bisseling et al,64 2021 |
| Esophageal variceal hemorrhage | Increased reporting of esophageal variceal hemorrhage in COVID-19 infection may result from increased susceptibility of patients with cirrhosis, chronic liver disease, or advanced alcoholic liver disease to contracting COVID-19 infection | 16,44,62,63 |
| Esophagitis moderately frequent | Hemorrhagic esophagitis from gastroesophageal reflux disease is moderately common but less frequently reported in COVID-19 patients than peptic ulcer disease | Vanella et al,16 2021, Kuftinec et al,61 2021 |
| Gastric leiomyoma/inflammatory fibroid polyp | 1 case report of a patient with COVID-19-associated severe pneumonia requiring extracorporeal membrane oxygenation who had upper GI bleeding from a gastric inflammatory polyp successfully treated with endoscopic hemostasis | Mur-Murota et al,70 2021 |
| Gastrointestinal stromal tumor | Case report | Aguayo et al,71 2020 |
| Gastropathy- petechial/hemorrhagic | Common reported finding (occurring in 9.2%) in a large study of COVID-19 patients undergoing EGD | Vanella et al,16 2021 |
| Hemobilia | 2 case reports of hemobilia | Koc and Çiçek,66 2021 |
| Marginal (anastomotic) ulcer | Case report | Galvez et al,72 2020 |
| Portal hypertensive duodenopathy | 1 case reported in a large endoscopic series of 87 endoscopies mostly performed for overt GI bleeding | Vanella et al,16 2021 |
| Portal hypertensive gastropathy | Case report | Philips et al,73 2020 |