Table 1.
Overview of parenting interventions and evidence regarding changes in infant attachment
| Intervention | Outcome study author(s) | Study design | Sample size | Child age (months) at program commencement | Time (s) of attachment assessment | Attachment measures used | Changes in attachment (intervention group) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Attachment and Biobehavioural Catch-Up (ABC) | Dozier et al. (2009) | RCT | N = 46 | M = 18.9; SD = not available; range = 3.9–39.4 | Pre- and post-intervention | Foster carer report using attachment diaries | Decreased avoidance |
| Bernard et al. (2012) | RCT | N = 120 | M = 10.1; SD = 6.0; range 1.7–21.4 | Post-intervention | SSP | Decreased disorganization; Increased security for those at risk of maltreatment | |
| Zajac et al. (2020) | RCT (follow-up of Bernard et al., 2012) | N = 100 | Same sample as Bernard et al. (2012) | 9 years of post-intervention | Kerns attachment scale | Increased security | |
| Circle of Security-Intensive (COS-I) | Hoffman et al. (2006) | Open trial | N = 65 | M = 32.0; SD = 12.6; range 11–58 | Pre- and post-intervention | SSP | Increased security; decreased combined disorganized-controlling attachment/insecure-other |
| Huber et al. (2015) | Open trial | N = 83 | M = 47.80; SD = 17.48, range 13–88 | Pre- and post-intervention | SSP | No statistically significant differences in % insecure or disorganized | |
| Circle of Security Perinatal (COS Perinatal) | Cassidy et al. (2010) | Open trial | N = 20 | During pregnancya | Post-intervention | SSP | Increased security and decreased disorganization compared to high-risk samples; no difference in rate of security or disorganization compared to a low-risk sample |
| COS-Home-Visiting-4 (COS-HV4) | Cassidy et al. (2011) | RCT | N = 220 | 6.5 monthsa | Post-intervention | SSP | Increased security among highly irritable infants |
| Child-Parent Psychotherapy (CPP) | Lieberman et al. (1991) | RCT | N = 93 | Range = 11–14a | Pre- and post-intervention | SSP; AQS | Decreased avoidance, resistance, and anger; Increased partnership with mother |
| Cicchetti et al. (1999) | RCT | N = 63 | M = 20.40; SD = 2.38, range not provided | Post-intervention | AQS | Increased security | |
| Toth et al. (2006) | RCT | N = 130 | M = 20.34, SD = 2.5; range not provided | Post-intervention | SSP | Increased security | |
| Infant-Parent Psychotherapy (IPP) | Cicchetti et al. (2006) | RCT | N = 189 | M = 12.31, SD = .81 | Pre-treatment; post-intervention | SSP | Increased security; Decreased disorganization |
| Stronach et al. (2013) | RCT | N = 189 | Follow-up of Cicchetti et al. (2006) | One-year post-intervention | SSP | Increased security; Decreased disorganization | |
| Steps Toward Effective and Enjoyable Parenting (STEEP) | Suess et al. (2016) | Quasi-experimental | N = 107 | Birth–2 yearsa | Post-intervention & 1-year post-intervention | SSP | No statistically significant differences in % insecure or disorganized; Decreased continuous 9-point disorganization rating |
| Early Head Start (EHS) | Roggman et al. (2009) | RCT | N = 160 | Pregnancy–10 months postpartuma | When children were 14 and 18 months | AQS | Increased security |
| Watch, Wait, and Wonder (WWW) | Cohen et al. (1999) | RCT | N = 67 | 10–30 months (WWW group: M = 21.5, SD = 6.5; Control group: M = 19.2, SD = 6.1) | Post-intervention & 6-month post-intervention | SSP | Increased security |
| UCLA Family Development Project | Heinicke et al. (1999) | RCT | N = 64 | Late pregnancya | Post-intervention | SSP | Increased security |
| Right From the Start (RFTS) | Niccols (2008) | RCT | N = 76 | M = 8.4; SD = 5.4; range not provided | Post-intervention; 6-month follow-up | AQS | No statistically significant differences in security |
| Promoting First Relationships (PFR) | Spieker et al. (2012) | RCT | N = 210 | M = 17.96; SD = 4.97; range not provided | Post-intervention & 6-month post-intervention | Toddler Attachment Sort-45 | Increased attachment-related outcomes |
| Moss’s Home-Visiting Intervention | Moss et al. (2011) | RCT | N = 67 | M = 40.2; SD = 1.38; range 12–71 | Post-intervention | SSP; Preschool Separation–Reunion Procedure | Increased security; Increased organization |
| Lyons-Ruth’s Home-Visiting Intervention | Lyons‐Ruth et al. (1990) | RCT | N = 31 | M = 4.7a | Post-intervention | SSP | Decreased insecurity; decreased disorganization |
| Minding the Baby | Slade et al. (2020) | RCT | N = 156 | Pregnancya | Post-intervention | SSP | Increased security; decreased disorganization |
| Parent–Child Interaction Therapy–Toddlers (PCIT-T) | Kohlhoff et al. (2020) | Open trial | N = 16 | M = 19.02; SD = 2.34; range not provided | Pre-intervention; Post-intervention | SSP | No statistically significant differences in % insecure or disorganized |
RCT Randomized controlled trial, SSP strange situation procedure, AQS Attachment Q-set
aMean, SD or range not provided