TABLE 2.

The implications of microbiota-derived metabolites in metabolic diseases.

Metabolites	Type	Metabolic role	Study/intervention type	References
Acetate	SCFAs	Decreased appetite and intake of nutrition	Mice	Frost et al. (2014)
Butyrate	SCFAs	Improves energy metabolism and decreases insulin resistance	Mice	Li et al. (2018)
Ceramide	Lipids	Decreased cold-induced thermogenesis	Mice	Zhang et al. (2019)
Ethanol	—	Epithelial tight junction dysfunction	Humans	Rao et al. (2004)
Glycodeoxycholic acid	Bile acids	Decreased insulin resistance	Mice	Qi et al. (2019)
Glycoursodeoxycholic acid	Bile acids	Decreased hyperglycemia	Mice	(Sun et al., 2018)
Histamine, spermine and Taurine	—	Increased IL-18	Mice	(Levy et al., 2015)
10-hydroxy-cis-12-octadecenoic acid (HYA)	Octadecenoic acid	Decreased obesity	Mice	(Miyamoto et al., 2019)
Indole-3-aldehyde	—	Increased IL-22	Mice	(Zelante et al., 2013)
Propionic acid	SCFAs	Increased expression of leptin mRNA	Human explants	(Al-Lahham et al., 2010)
Propionate and butyrate	SCFAs	Regulation of energy intake and insulin secretion	Human enteroendocrine cell lines	(Larraufie et al., 2018)
Propionate and butyrate	SCFAs	Release of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP1) and peptide YY (PYY)	Rats	(Psichas et al., 2015)
Tauro-beta-muricholic acid	Bile acids	Decreased glucose intolerance	Hamsters	(Sun et al., 2019)
Tauroursodeoxycholic acid	Bile acids	Decreased insulin resistance	Humans	(Kars et al., 2010)