Table 1.

Drug resistance mechanisms against some commonly used antibiotics

Antibiotic class	Examples	Target	Modes of resistance
β-Lactams	Penicillin (ampicillin) Cephalosporins, Penem	Peptidoglycan biosynthesis	Hydrolysis, efflux, altered target
Aminoglycoside	Gentamycin, Streptomycin	Translation	Phosphorylation, acetylation, efflux, altered target
Glycopeptides	Vancomycin, Teicoplanin	Peptidoglycan Biosynthesis	Reprogramming Peptidoglycan biosynthesis
Tetracyclines	Minocycline, tigecycline	Translation	Mono-oxygenation, altered target
Macrolides	Erythromycin, azithromycin	Translation	Hydrolysis, efflux glycosylation, Phosphorylation
Phenicols	Chloramphenicol	Translation	Acetylation, efflux
Quinolones	Ciprofloxacin	DNA replication	Acetylation, altered target
Sulfonamides	Sulfamethoxazole	C1 metabolism	Efflux, altered target
Rifamycins	Rifampin	Transcription	ADP-ribosylation, efflux