Fig. 3.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), secreted by pituitary gland and immune cells (i.e., macrophage), acts on melanocortin 2 receptor (Mc2r) on osteoblasts and upregulates vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and alpha-2-macroglobulin (A2M), which induces transforming growth factor β (TGF-β).