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. 2022 Nov 5;12:18740. doi: 10.1038/s41598-022-23382-8

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Regions associated with correct grammar processing. Brain activation was associated with grammar processing (grammar > letter) in (A) non-native learners, (B) native speakers, (C) the conjunction of non-native learners and native speakers, (D) non-native learners greater than native speakers, and (E) native speakers greater than non-native learners. The level of activation was set at a threshold p-value of < 0.05 and the FWE was corrected for multiple comparisons over the whole brain, with the height threshold set at a p-value of < 0.001 (uncorrected).