Table 1.
Regions associated with processing in non-native learners and native speakers.
| Spatial extent test | MNI coordinates (mm) | t value | Location | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cluster size | PFWE-corr | x | y | z | Side | Area | |
| In non-native learners | |||||||
| 13,387 | < 0.001 | −3 | 8 | 64 | 5.95 | L | SFG |
| 1 | 9 | 63 | 6.18 | R | SFG | ||
| − 5 | 18 | 44 | 5.56 | L | mPFC | ||
| 14 | 25 | 33 | 5.72 | R | MCC | ||
| 23,272 | < 0.001 | − 34 | −1 | 45 | 4.83 | L | Precentral gyrus |
| − 54 | 28 | 19 | 8.27 | L | IFG, triangular | ||
| − 46 | 15 | 6 | 5.92 | L | IFG, opercular | ||
| − 35 | 19 | − 1 | 6.75 | L | Insula | ||
| − 33 | 35 | − 2 | 5.12 | L | IFG, orbital | ||
| 829 | 0.022 | − 3 | − 15 | 13 | 3.70 | L | Thalamus |
| 5112 | < 0.001 | 40 | 26 | 7 | 4.97 | R | IFG, triangular |
| 13 | 17 | 3 | 5.17 | R | Caudate | ||
| 35 | 24 | − 1 | 5.96 | R | Insula | ||
| 35 | 32 | − 5 | 4.07 | R | IFG, orbital | ||
| 26 | 19 | 6 | 4.32 | R | Putamen | ||
| 3748 | < 0.001 | − 50 | − 41 | 7 | 4.99 | L | MTG |
| 1013 | 0.008 | − 11 | 12 | 7 | 5.54 | L | Caudate |
| − 11 | 6 | 0 | 4.77 | L | Pallidam | ||
| 704 | 0.045 | 51 | − 31 | 3 | 4.75 | R | STG |
| 10,800 | < 0.001 | 18 | − 85 | − 14 | 4.77 | R | Lingual gyrus |
| 20 | − 67 | − 27 | 5.44 | R | Cerebellum VI | ||
| 14 | − 65 | − 29 | 5.29 | R | Cerebellum Dentate | ||
| 41 | − 61 | − 30 | 4.76 | R | Cerebellum Crus I | ||
| 11 | − 83 | − 30 | 6.19 | R | Cerebellum Crus II | ||
| 27 | − 65 | − 46 | 6.74 | R | Cerebellum VIIb | ||
| In native speakers | |||||||
| 15,126 | < 0.001 | − 9 | 21 | 46 | 6.50 | L | SFG |
| 1 | 26 | 39 | 5.06 | R | mPFC | ||
| − 3 | 26 | 38 | 5.29 | L | MCC | ||
| 14 | 20 | 33 | 6.30 | R | MCC | ||
| − 12 | 28 | 29 | 4.97 | L | ACC | ||
| 21,757 | < 0.001 | − 55 | 27 | 18 | 6.31 | L | IFG, triangular |
| − 47 | 14 | 6 | 6.34 | L | IFG, opercular | ||
| − 33 | 19 | − 1 | 9.63 | L | Insula | ||
| − 46 | 17 | −8 | 5.88 | L | IFG, orbital | ||
| − 46 | 20 | − 15 | 5.83 | L | Temporal pole | ||
| 12,286 | < 0.001 | 38 | 19 | 13 | 4.55 | R | IFG, opercular |
| 36 | 32 | 4 | 5.29 | R | IFG, triangular | ||
| 37 | 22 | − 3 | 8.02 | R | Insula | ||
| 48 | 24 | − 10 | 4.79 | R | IFG, orbital | ||
| 5067 | < 0.001 | 3 | − 8 | 8 | 5.70 | R | Thalamus |
| − 11 | 9 | 5 | 4.82 | L | Caudate | ||
| 11 | 13 | 4 | 4.93 | R | Caudate | ||
| 7592 | < 0.001 | 12 | − 89 | 7 | 4.99 | R | Calcarine gyrus |
| − 1 | − 79 | − 7 | 4.29 | L | Lingual gyrus | ||
| 21 | − 87 | − 13 | 5.92 | R | Lingual gyrus | ||
| 13 | − 82 | − 34 | 5.95 | R | Cerebellum Crus II | ||
| 1714 | < 0.001 | − 57 | − 37 | 5 | 4.88 | L | MTG |
| 1448 | < 0.001 | 0 | − 56 | − 21 | 5.03 | Cerebellum I−IV | |
| 5 | − 55 | − 26 | 4.52 | R | Cerebellum Fastigial | ||
| 21 | − 68 | − 26 | 3.43 | R | Cerebellum VI | ||
| 1 | − 61 | − 29 | 4.54 | R | Cerebellum Vermis VI | ||
| 9 | − 64 | − 30 | 4.32 | R | Cerebellum Dentate | ||
| − 1 | − 59 | − 32 | 4.38 | L | Cerebellum Vermis VIIIa | ||
| 744 | 0.036 | 34 | − 67 | − 23 | 3.95 | R | Cerebellum VI |
| 45 | − 57 | − 29 | 4.04 | R | Cerebellum Crus I | ||
Activation was set at a threshold of p < 0.05 and FWE was corrected for multiple comparisons over the whole brain, with the height threshold set at p < 0.001, uncorrected. The terms x, y, and z represent the stereotaxic coordinates (mm). R, right hemisphere; L, left hemisphere; IFG, inferior frontal gyrus; SFG, superior frontal gyrus; ACC, anterior cingulate cortex; MCC, middle cingulate cortex; mPFC, medial prefrontal cortex; MTG, middle temporal gyrus; FWE, family-wise error; MNI, Montreal Neurological Institute.