Table 3.
Trigger mechanism for hypervesiculation of bacterial outer membrane vesicles (OMVs).
| Triggers for Vesiculation | Mechanism | Reference |
|---|---|---|
| Phenanthrene and hexadecane | Hydrophobic carbon sources | [186,187] |
| Toluene | intercalates into the hydrophobic region and changes the membrane curvature | [188] |
| Misfolded proteins like OmpA | decreased location envelope ties between peptidoglycan and outer membrane lacking cross-linking components | [53] |
| Lack of Lpp (abundant lipoprotein of E. coli)), L,D-transpeptidases YcfS, ErfK, degP, degS, fliC, flgK, glnA, lysS/herC, nlpA, nlpI, ompC, ompR, pepP, pnp, ponB, rmpM, rseA, tatC, wag/rfaG, wzxE, yieM, ypjM, LpxL2, LpxM, htrB, waaN, LpxL, msbB, waaM, LpxL1, msbB and YbiS | Alters the cell envelope | [53,91,131] |
| Mutation of peptidoglycan amidase or increase in peptidoglycan hydrolyzing enzymes | increase the outer membrane material | [131,189] |
| Genetic modulation like null Nlpl, increased expression of N-terminal domain of g3p phage protein, domains of colicins A and E3, LpxR, pagL, LpxO, Hp0021, msbB gene | Upregulation or remodeling of necessary cell envelope lipids | [91,99,190,191] |
| Increase in lactate | source of carbon | [153] |
| EGTA, a calcium chelator | depletes the calcium needed to maintain the crystalline surface of bacilli | [192] |
| Regulating spore formation pathway | - | [193] |