Table 3.

Use of causal and non-causal language in 200 observational studies in veterinary species published between 2,000 and March 31, 2022, based on whether the study purpose was purely to identify associations, predictive, or had a causal premise.

	Number of studies
Wording in abstract objectives/hypotheses
Used non-causal language
Association/predictive studies	112/152
Potential causal inference studies	35/48
Used causal language
Association/predictive studies	9/152
Potential causal inference studies	7/48
Qualified the causal language
Always qualified	1/16
Sometimes qualified	0/16
Never qualified	15/16
Wording in abstract outside of objectives/hypotheses
Used non-causal language
Association/predictive studies	147/152
Potential causal inference studies	47/48
Used causal language
Association/predictive studies	54/152
Potential causal inference studies	25/48
Qualified the causal language
Always qualified	5/79
Sometimes qualified	5/79
Never qualified	69/79
Wording in objectives/hypotheses in main text
Used non-causal language
Association/predictive studies	149/152
Potential causal inference studies	47/48
Used causal language
Association/predictive studies	19/152
Potential causal inference studies	18/48
Qualified the causal language
Always qualified	1/37
Sometimes qualified	1/37
Never qualified	35/37
Wording in main text outside of objectives/hypotheses
Used non-causal language
Association/predictive studies	152/152
Potential causal inference studies	48/48
Used causal language
Association/predictive studies	122/152
Potential causal inference studies	43/48
Qualified the causal language
Always qualified	9/165
Sometimes qualified	55/165
Never qualified	101/165