Table 4.
Description of non-causal, causal, and qualifying words using in different article sections.
| Number of studies (out of 200) where a word or phrase was used | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract objectives/hypotheses | Title/abstract (other than objectives/hypotheses) | Objectives/hypotheses in main text |
Main text other than objectives/
hypotheses |
|
| Non-causal words | ||||
| Association/associated | 71 | 133 | 93 | 187 |
| Risk factor/sparing factor/protective factor | 96 | 117 | 105 | 146 |
| Higher/lower/more or less likely/greater/lesser | 1 | 114 | 9 | 180 |
| Predicts/predictor/prognostic factor | 15 | 30 | 17 | 72 |
| Related to/relation(ship) | 7 | 15 | 8 | 77 |
| Correlated (with) | 11 | 4 | 48 | |
| Explain(ed)/explanatory (variables) | – | 2 | – | 49 |
| Linked to | – | 4 | 1 | 16 |
| Varies with | 1 | 5 | – | 11 |
| Causal words | ||||
| Increases/decreases | 2 | 50 | 13 | 110 |
| Effects/affects/is effective | 8 | 20 | 11 | 81 |
| Influences | 4 | 13 | 8 | 48 |
| Elevates/reduces/depresses | – | 14 | 4 | 37 |
| Impacts | 1 | 6 | 3 | 29 |
| Contributes to | – | 4 | – | 25 |
| Cause(d)/consequence of | 2 | 3 | 2 | 16 |
| Is attributed to | – | 1 | – | 10 |
| Leads to | – | 1 | – | 6 |
| Improves/results in improvement | – | 2 | 1 | 3 |
| Is responsible for | – | 1 | – | 4 |
| Prevents | – | 2 | – | 3 |
| Results in | – | – | 1 | 4 |
| Proved to be | – | – | – | 4 |
| Altered by | – | – | 1 | 3 |
| Induces (an outcome) | – | – | – | 4 |
| Is successful | – | 1 | – | 2 |
| Enhances | – | – | – | 3 |
| Benefits from | – | – | – | 2 |
| Impairs | – | 1 | – | – |
| Driver of | – | 1 | – | – |
| Underlies | – | – | – | 1 |
| Qualifying words | ||||
| Can/could | – | 6 | – | 25 |
| May/might | 1 | 1 | 2 | 23 |
| Suggests that | – | 2 | – | 11 |
| Likely that | – | – | – | 12 |
| Appears to be | – | – | – | 11 |
| Possible that | – | – | – | 3 |
| Seems to | – | – | – | 2 |
| Presents some evidence | – | – | – | 1 |
| Thought to be | – | 1 | – | – |