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. 2022 Oct 16;50(19):10817–10838. doi: 10.1093/nar/gkac866

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© The Author(s) 2022. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Nucleic Acids Research.

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. For commercial re-use, please contact journals.permissions@oup.com

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Figure 4. — PAR synthesis and cellular localization. (A) PARPs is performs the PARylation reaction in the form of 1. Intramolecular (in cis-) auto-modification, 2. Intermolecular (in trans-) auto-modification within PARP dimers and 3. trans-modification of non-PARP targets. The points of active PAR production—PAR ‘stars’—are detected by electron microscopy (95,96) or atomic force microscopy (97). (B) PAR is found in cells at several locations: 1.transcription factories; 2. DNA repair foci; 3. the nucleolus; 4. Cajal bodies; 5. telomeres; 6. ASK3 condensates; 7. in the form of protein-free PAR chains; 8. stress granules; 9. pathological aggregates; 10. the spindle; and in extracellular space as 11. a product of PARP2 located on T-cell surface; 12. free PAR chains released in the extracellular matrix due to cell necrosis.