Table 4.

Summary of empirical studies investigating cross-national differences in loneliness

Study	Sample size	Sample age	Included countries	Loneliness measure	Time period (dataset used, if applicable)	Results
Arsenijevic & Groot (2018)168	Not reported	>50 years	10 European countries	One item (“How often did you feel lonely during the last 12 months?”) with three response options	2004–2013 (SHARE)169	Lowest prevalence of loneliness in the Netherlands (6.5%), highest prevalence of loneliness in Italy (15.4%) in 2004. Lowest prevalence of loneliness in Denmark (10.0%), highest prevalence of loneliness in Italy (33.4%) in 2013. Loneliness increased across time in all countries.
Beller & Wagner (2020)170	40,797	>50 years	13 European countries and Israel	3-Item UCLA Loneliness Scale171 with three response options	2013 and 2017 (SHARE)169	Stronger effects of loneliness on most health outcomes in less individualistic countries than in more individualistic countries.
Domènech-Abella et al. (2018)172	7,966	>65 years	Finland, Poland, Spain	3-Item UCLA Loneliness Scale171 with three response options	2011–2012 (COURAGE in Europe)173	Higher prevalence of loneliness in Poland and Spain than in Finland
Fokkema et al. (2012)123	12,248	>50 years	14 European countries	One item with two response options from the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale174	2006–2007 (SHARE)169	Higher prevalence of loneliness in southern and central than in northern and western Europe. Being unmarried, economic deprivation and poor health were predictors of loneliness in southern and central Europe. Social participation as well as frequent contact with and providing support for close relatives prevents and alleviates loneliness in most European countries.
Hansen & Slagsvold (2016)103	33,832	60–80 years	11 European countries	Six-item version of the de Jong Gierveld Scale175 with three response options	2004–2011 (Generations and Gender Survey176)	Higher prevalence of loneliness in eastern than in western or northern Europe. Loneliness is predicted by health, partnership and socioeconomic status.
Lykes & Kemmelmeier (2014)117	3,902	>60 years	12 European countries	One item (“Do you feel lonely often, occasionally, or never?”) with three response options	1992 (Eurobarometer177)	Higher loneliness in collectivistic than in individualistic societies. Absence of interaction with family members is more strongly associated with loneliness in collectivistic societies than in individualistic societies. Absence of a confidant and interaction with friends is more strongly associated with loneliness in individualistic societies than in collectivistic societies.
	38,867	>14 years	22 European countries	One item (“How much of the time during the past week you felt lonely?”) with four response options	2006 (European Social Survey178)
Sauter et al. (2020)179	76,982	13–17 years	25 countries in Latin America and the Caribbean	One item with five response options: “In the past 12 months, how often have you felt lonely?”	2003–2018 (Global School-based Student Health Survey)	Lowest prevalence of loneliness in Costa Rica (6.7%). Highest prevalence of loneliness in Jamaica (19.5%). Higher prevalence of loneliness in girls than in boys.
Stickley et al. (2013)108	18,000	>18 years	Nine former Soviet Union countries	One item (“How often do you feel lonely?”) with four response options	2010–2011 (Health in Times of Transition108)	Cross-national differences in loneliness (often lonely: from 4.4% in Armenia to 17.9% in Moldova). Higher loneliness is associated with being divorced or widowed, and less social support in all countries. Associations between loneliness and alcohol, tobacco, psychological distress and health differ between countries.
Sundström et al. (2009)180	8,787	>65 years	11 European countries and Israel.	One item (“How often have you experienced the feeling of loneliness over the last week”) with four response options	2004–2006 (SHARE169)	Higher prevalence of loneliness in Mediterranean countries than in northern Europe. Living with a partner is associated with lower loneliness in all countries. Substantial increase in loneliness when low health and being without a partner are combined. Individual and societal characteristics are linked to loneliness.
Swader (2019)125	36,760	>14 years	21 European countries	One dichotomized item: “How much of the time in the past week [have] you felt lonely?”	2014 (European Social Survey181)	Higher loneliness in less individualistic countries and in countries with a lower GDP.
Vancampfort et al. (2019)182	148,045	12–15 years	52 countries	One item (“During the past 12 months, how often have you felt lonely?”) with five response options	2003–2016 (Global School-based Student Health Survey)	After adjusting for age and sex, loneliness was lowest in Laos (2.3%) and highest in Afghanistan (28.5%). Loneliness was similar in countries with different income levels. Sedentary behaviour is associated with loneliness.
Vancampfort et al. (2019)183	34,129	>50 years	China, Ghana, India, Mexico, Russia, South Africa	One item (“Did you feel lonely for much of the day yesterday?”) with two response options	2007–2010 (Study on Global Ageing and Adult Health)	Lowest loneliness in China (5.5%), highest loneliness in India (17.8%). People who did not meet recommendations for physical activity were lonelier than those who did meet these recommendations.
Vozikaki et al. (2018)104	5,074	>65 years	11 European countries	One item with four response options from the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale174	2004–2005 (SHARE169)	Higher prevalence of loneliness in southern than in northern Europe. More frequent loneliness is associated with female gender, older age, a lower socioeconomic status, being partnerless and childless, and not being involved in activities.
Yang & Victor (2011)105	47,099	15–101 years	25 European countries	One item (“Using this card, please tell me how much of the time during the past week you felt lonely”) with five response options	2006–2007 (European Social Survey178)	Higher prevalence of loneliness in eastern than in northern Europe. Age has a weaker impact on loneliness than the country of residence.
Zoutewelle-Terovan & Liefbroer (2018)106	61,082	50–85 years	12 European countries (including Georgia)	Six-item version of the de Jong Gierveld Scale175	2004–2009 (Generations and Gender Survey176)	Higher loneliness is associated with being partnerless and childless and other non-normative transitions. There are cross-national differences in the strength of these associations. Childlessness has a stronger effect on loneliness in more traditionalist countries.