TABLE 1.
Baseline characteristics of participants.
| Covariates | Total | Without T2D | With T2D | P-value |
| (n = 17,866) | (n = 14,666) | (n = 3,200) | ||
| Age (years) | 49.3 ± 17.7 | 46.7 ± 17.5 | 61.0 ± 13.5 | <0.001 |
| Gender, n (%) | 0.007 | |||
| Female | 9,019 (50.5) | 7,473 (51) | 1,546 (48.3) | |
| Male | 8,847 (49.5) | 7,193 (49) | 1,654 (51.7) | |
| Education level, n (%) | <0.001 | |||
| Did not graduate from high school | 4,327 (24.2) | 3,207 (21.9) | 1,120 (35) | |
| Graduated from high school | 4,092 (22.9) | 3,341 (22.8) | 751 (23.5) | |
| College education or above | 9,447 (52.9) | 8,118 (55.4) | 1,329 (41.5) | |
| Race/Ethnicity, n (%) | <0.001 | |||
| Mexican American | 2,531 (14.2) | 2,011 (13.7) | 520 (16.2) | |
| Other Hispanic | 1,681 (9.4) | 1,350 (9.2) | 331 (10.3) | |
| Non-Hispanic white | 8,372 (46.9) | 7,073 (48.2) | 1,299 (40.6) | |
| Non-Hispanic black | 3,704 (20.7) | 2,887 (19.7) | 817 (25.5) | |
| Other races | 1,578 (8.8) | 1,345 (9.2) | 233 (7.3) | |
| PIR, Mean ± SD | 2.5 ± 1.6 | 2.6 ± 1.7 | 2.3 ± 1.5 | <0.001 |
| Dietary factors | ||||
| Energy (kcal) | 2112.0 ± 1007.4 | 2164.5 ± 1022.8 | 1871.1 ± 895.5 | <0.001 |
| Protein (gm) | 81.2 ± 43.0 | 82.4 ± 43.5 | 75.8 ± 39.7 | <0.001 |
| carbohydrate (gm) | 256.5 ± 128.1 | 263.8 ± 130.4 | 222.9 ± 111.2 | <0.001 |
| Fiber (gm) | 16.6 ± 10.4 | 16.7 ± 10.5 | 15.9 ± 10.0 | <0.001 |
| Vitamin D (mg) | 3.1 (1.2, 6.0) | 3.2 (1.2, 6.1) | 3.1 (1.3, 5.6) | 0.107 |
| Magnesium (mg) | 294.5 ± 149.9 | 299.4 ± 152.4 | 272.3 ± 135.5 | <0.001 |
| BMI (kg/m2), Mean ± SD | 29.2 ± 6.9 | 28.4 ± 6.6 | 32.5 ± 7.5 | <0.001 |
| BMI, n (%) | <0.001 | |||
| <25 kg/m2 | 5,195 (29.1) | 4,769 (32.5) | 426 (13.3) | |
| 25∼30 kg/m2 | 5,923 (33.2) | 5,007 (34.1) | 916 (28.6) | |
| ≥30 kg/m2 | 6,748 (37.8) | 4,890 (33.3) | 1858 (58.1) | |
| Glycohemoglobin (%) | 5.7 ± 1.1 | 5.4 ± 0.4 | 7.2 ± 1.7 | <0.001 |
| Fasting glucose (mg/dL) | 108.3 ± 34.6 | 97.8 ± 9.7 | 148.3 ± 58.1 | <0.001 |
| Two hour glucose (OGTT) (mg/dL) | 120.6 ± 51.8 | 109.2 ± 31.9 | 223.5 ± 77.0 | <0.001 |
| Smoking status, n (%) | <0.001 | |||
| Current smoker | 4,398 (24.6) | 3,301 (22.5) | 1,097 (34.3) | |
| Former smoker | 3,796 (21.2) | 3,260 (22.2) | 536 (16.8) | |
| Never smoker | 9,672 (54.1) | 8,105 (55.3) | 1,567 (49) | |
| Drinking status, n (%) | <0.001 | |||
| ≥ 12 alcohol drinks a year (%) | 13,061 (73.1) | 10,989 (74.9) | 2,072 (64.8) | |
| Physical activity, n (%) | ||||
| Vigorous work activity | 3,343 (18.7) | 2,933 (20) | 410 (12.8) | <0.001 |
| Moderate work activity | 6,466 (36.2) | 5,541 (37.8) | 925 (28.9) | <0.001 |
| Walk or bicycle | 4,658 (26.1) | 4,031 (27.5) | 627 (19.6) | <0.001 |
| Vigorous recreational activities | 3,779 (21.2) | 3,546 (24.2) | 233 (7.3) | <0.001 |
| Moderate recreational activities | 7,281 (40.8) | 6,290 (42.9) | 991 (31) | <0.001 |
| Hypertension, n (%) | 6,485 (36.3) | 4,381 (29.9) | 2104 (65.8) | <0.001 |
| Depression, n (%) | 1,670 (9.3) | 1,238 (8.4) | 432 (13.5) | <0.001 |
| Sleeping time, n (hours) | 6.8 ± 1.4 | 6.8 ± 1.4 | 6.8 ± 1.6 | 0.088 |
Data presented are ORs and 95% CIs.
T2D, type 2 diabetes; PIR, ratio of family income to poverty; BMI, body mass index.