Fig. 3. Rapid photothermal actuation of G-LCFs.

a, Photoactuation and corresponding surface temperature variation in 100 strand G_0.3-LCF bundle suspending 10 g weight subjected to NIR irradiation (λ = 808 nm) at room temperature. b, Actuation strain and concurrent electrical current change at the single-fibre level of G_0.3-LCF induced by different NIR intensities under a constant stress (1.5 MPa). c, Contraction strains for different strands of G_0.3-LCF in response to NIR irradiation (800 mW cm^-2) under a constant stress (1.5 MPa). d, Comparison plot in terms of specific actuation stress, actuation strain, strain rate, work density and power density with natural biological muscles. e, Comparison of our actuator fibre with previous LCE-based actuators in terms of tensile strength and Young’s modulus in the contracted actuation states.