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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2023 Jun 1.
Published in final edited form as: J Aerosol Sci. 2022 Mar 25;163:105992. doi: 10.1016/j.jaerosci.2022.105992

Table 2.

Passive Bioaerosol Samplers

Sampler Description and References Advantages Limitations
Gravity-based Samplers
Agar Settle Plates 100mm agar media plates are left in the sampling environment for up to 4 hours to capture settling organisms (Markel et al., 2018; Sandle, 2015). Settle plates offer a low-cost and quick method of analysis of culturable organisms. This method has been frequently cited in the literature. Limited sampling duration due to desiccation of the media. Determines only the culturable bioaerosol fraction.
Settling Filters It can include any type of filter used for bioaerosol or general particulate matter sampling (Johnston et al., 1978; Näsman et al., 1999). Affordable, long-term sampling. Filters are commonly available in aerosol sampling labs or are easily obtained. No consistent sampling protocols or list of materials. Sampler needs to be secured to prevent filter warping or disturbance from the wind.
Einstein-Lioy Sampler The Einstein-Lioy Sampler allows sampling on up to four filters simultaneously in a filter holder while minimizing filter disturbance by wind or other elements (Einstein et al., 2012). Secures 37mm filter samplers (with an exposed 25mm diameter) for convenient long term-sampling using the preferred filter material of choice. Although it has been reported for passive sampling for particulate matter studies, this device has not been reported for bioaerosol measurement.
Dustfall collector or Petri dish The dustfall collector allows sample collection in a box or sterile Petri dish (Adams, Tian, et al., 2015; Noss et al., 2010; Würtz et al., 2005). Sterile container and timeline for dust samples. A more versatile alternative to agar plates. It may require multiple swabs to gather all dust from the sampler.
Durham-type Passive Spore Trap The Durham trap protects prepared slides for long-term outdoor sampling in different field conditions (Durham, 1946; Serrano-Silva & Calderón-Ezquerro, 2018). Secures prepared slide samplers for convenient long-term sampling for microscopic analysis. The sampler was designed specifically for slide analysis by microscopy, limiting analysis methods.
Gravity-based Samplers
Remote Airborne Microbial Passive (RAMP) Sampler The RAMP system is designed for sampling onto gel-coated square Petri dishes for bioaerosol at altitudes with a balloon (Spring et al., 2018). Lightweight design allows for high-altitude sample collection. Due to design considerations, no reference sampler was included in testing as a comparison.
Personal Aeroallergen Sampler (PAAS) The PAAS is designed as a personal sampler to be worn around the neck near a person’s breathing zone to capture an individual’s personal exposure (Yamamoto et al., 2006; Yamamoto et al., 2011). A passive personal sampler to directly measure personal exposures. Low sensitivity at low bioaerosol concentrations. Similar to all gravity-based samplers, particle sizes under 5 pm are undersampled.
Electrostatic Collection
Electrostatic Dustfall Collectors (EDCs) Utilizes electrostatic materials to aid in the collection. Commercially available as Swiffer® or Pledge® Grab-It™ (Böhlandt et al., 2016; Cox et al., 2017; Cozen et al., 2008; Brita Kilburg-Basnyat et al., 2016; Kristono et al., 2018; Madsen et al., 2012; Noss et al., 2008; Viegas et al., 2018). Sampled bioaerosol can be determined using a large suite of analysis methods. In addition, electrostatic properties may aid in attracting smaller particles than gravity alone. Difficult to elute particles from the collection material. May lose charge over time.
Rutgers Electrostatic Passive Sampler (REPS) Permanently polarized PVDF film is wound into a 3D printed film holder to create an electrostatic field between layers to capture bioaerosol particles (Metaxatos et al., 2022; Therkorn, Thomas, Calderón, et al., 2017; Therkorn, Thomas, Scheinbeim, et al., 2017). The electrostatic attraction may aid in capturing more particles than gravity alone. Convenient transport and elution in standard sterile conical centrifuge tubes. Currently requires sample into a large volume of liquid (35 mL), which increases the detection limit.
Special Cases: Passive Opportunity Samplers Using Existing Air Streams
Nasal Air Sampler (NAS) The sampler is clipped into the nasal passage and uses nasal breathing to capture particles onto an adhesive surface (Graham et al., 2000). Allows direct measurement of inhalation exposures. Does not measure exposures due to mouth breathing.
HVAC or Other Existing Air Filters Use of existing filtration systems to collect bioaerosol samples (Ackelsberg et al., 2011; Bonetta et al., 2010; Goyal et al., 2011; Noris et al., 2011; Stanley et al., 2008). Airflow and air volume are known or can be determined. Information on sample age depends on the accuracy of maintenance records. Unmaintained HVAC systems can be a source of microorganisms, which can impose sample bias.
Infectious Aerosol Capture Mask (IACM) Modified oxygen delivery mask with an attached filter cartridge that can be attached to a hospital vacuum outlet. The IACM is used to minimize aerosol spread by COVID-19 patients and measure exhaled SARS-CoV-2 aerosols from infected persons (Santarpia et al., 2021). The mask has been demonstrated as a tool for both minimizing the spread of infectious bioaerosol and measurement of aerosols generated by infected individuals. Information is limited to source strength post-exposure and disease development.
ISS Passive Aerosol Sampler Developed for sampling particulate matter present on the International Space Station (ISS) by placing device over the ventilation system intake. The sampler included five aluminum blocks with double-sided carbon tape as the collection medium. (Haines et al., 2019; Meyer, 2017, 2018). This sampler was designed to be compact and allow secure transport to and from the ISS. This device utilized the forced air movement through the air intake of the ventilation system to capture particles by impaction onto the collection substrate. Specifically designed for passive sampling applications in microgravity environments.
Related Dust Collection Methods
Vacuum, surface swabs, or wipes A vacuum, cloth, or swab can be used to collect settled dust from surfaces, often using a template defined surface area (Adams & Dancer, 2020; Aktas et al., 2018; Cox et al., 2017; Magyar et al., 2018; Viegas et al., 2020). Affordable, quick sampling method for historical settled particles which does not require extensive collection time. Does not provide the age of the collected dust sample. Collection efficiency may vary between surface materials and applied wiping/swabbing pressure during collection.
Diffusion-based nonpolar compound sampler
Fresh Air Clip Uses a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) pad to capture nonpolar compounds such as lipid enveloped virus particles (Angel et al., 2022; Lin et al., 2020). Demonstrated ability to capture measurable quantities of viral particles in chamber and field tests. Currently, there is limited knowledge about its applications to different bioaerosol types.