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. 2022 Sep 11;44:e004722. doi: 10.29374/2527-2179.bjvm004722

Antiparasitic treatment using herbs and spices: A review of the literature of the phytotherapy

Tratamento antiparasitário utilizando plantas condimentares e aromáticas: Uma revisão de literatura

Adriane Leites Strothmann 1, Maria Elisabeth Aires Berne 2, Gabriela de Almeida Capella 3, Micaele Quintana de Moura 4, Wesley Douglas da Silva Terto 4, Caroline Maciel da Costa 5, Natália Berne Pinheiro 6,*
PMCID: PMC9652050  PMID: 36381138

Abstract

This study sought to make a literature review of the medicinal plants Origanum majorana, Origanum vulgare L., Thymus vulgaris L., Cuminum cynimum L., and Rosmarinus officinalis L. with antiparasitic potential. Articles and theses were selected from the LILACS, PubMed, and Google Scholar databases, which comprised the period from 2000 to 2021 (22 years). In all, 49 studies were selected, and the majority were with the plant Origanum vulgare L. (oregano), followed by Thymus vulgaris L. (thyme). Twenty-five genera of parasites were detected, which were described being tested with phytotherapic. The nematode Haemonchus spp. was the most evaluated in these studies, followed by the parasite genera Leishmania, Trichostrongylus, and Toxocara. All plants showed antiparasitic effects, with more or less action, therefore with the potential to continue research in the search for biomolecules to control these parasites.

Keywords: phytotherapy, endoparasites, alternative control

Introduction

Man’s relationship with natural resources to improve his living conditions and increase his chances of survival is ancient (Taufner et al., 2006). Medicines derived from plants (i.e., herbal medicines) present a wide spectrum of use, especially by groups of people in vulnerable situations and those concerned about consuming a more naturally produced food (Nery et al., 2009; Silva et al., 2017). When used correctly, these molecules present fewer side effects (Andrade et al., 2018). It is esteemed that at least 80% of the world population uses traditional medicine, and of these, 85% utilize medicinal plants (Barata, 2003; Fenalti et al., 2016; Gadelha et al., 2013).

In Brazil, phytotherapy was included as a practice in the public health network in 2006 (Brasil, 2006). In 2011, ANVISA created a manual with instructions for using medicinal plants with therapeutic potential, which had been described and scientifically accepted (Brasil, 2010). The intention was to guide the proper use, especially for users of the Unified Health System (SUS), because the population uses many plants without any guidance, which may bring risks since there are various toxic species (Giordani et al., 2016).

Diseases caused by parasites are a major public health problem (Estancial & Marini, 2014). Evidence has shown that roughly 300 helminth species and 70 protozoa species have already been diagnosed infecting humans, being the cause of death of about 200,000 people per year (Melo et al., 2017). Given that it affects the neediest population, since the mid-twentieth century, the pharmacopoeia used to control neglected tropical diseases remains unchanged (Hotez et al., 2006).

Only the use of drugs to treat diseases transmitted by parasites is not enough since the environment, water, and food are important sources of infection (Andrade et al., 2010). In addition, with the indiscriminate use of drugs, parasite resistance to available drugs emerges, especially among production animals (Fortes & Molento, 2013).

Thus, medicinal plants have been described with importance in research because they constitute an alternative treatment for parasitic diseases. Given this context, this study sought to perform a literature review of research that used the medicinal plants Cuminum cynimum (cumin), Origanum vulgare (oregano), Origanum majorana (marjoram), Rosmarinus officinalis (rosemary), and Thymus vulgaris (thyme) and the evaluation of these molecules in parasites of medical and veterinary importance.

Methodology

This review selected papers in the LILACS, PubMed, and Google Scholar databases that comprised the publication period between 2000 and 2021. The descriptors chosen to find the selection of studies were “anti-helminthic medicinal plants,” “Rosmarinus officinalis L.,” “Origanum majorana,” “Origanum vulgare L.,” “Thymus vulgaris L.,” and “Cuminum cyminum L.” and their correspondents in English: “medicinal plants” and “anthelminthic,” and in Spanish: “plantas medicinales” and “antihelmíntico” for the LILACS and PubMed databases. As for Google Scholar, the words used were “anti-helminthic medicinal plants” and the name of each species; in Portuguese, English and Spanish.

Results and discussion

Brazil has a plethora of different plant species (approximately 55,000 species). Among the species that compose the registered herbal medicines, 25% originate from South America, estimating that less than 15% of the species have been studied for medicinal purposes (Zago, 2018). Thus, research pointing to their biological proof is necessary as the population routinely uses some of these plants as medicine and because they may be important sources for discovering new therapeutic options (Marinho et al., 2007; Zago, 2018).

In this review, 49 papers were selected, in which Rosmarinus officinalis L., Origanum majorana, Origanum vulgare L., Thymus vulgaris L., and Cuminum cyminum L. were tested against parasites of medical or veterinary importance. Of the 49 studies selected for review, 34 consisted of experimental work, and of these, 28 were only in vitro studies and 6 were in vitro and in vivo or just in vivo experimental studies.

Oregano was the most commonly studied plant (n = 15), followed by thyme (n = 14), rosemary (n = 7), marjoram (n = 4), and cumin (n = 2) (Figure 1). Six studies tested more than one plant: Santoro et al. (2007a) investigated oregano and thyme, Sanchez-Suarez et al. (2013) analyzed thyme, oregano, and rosemary, Castro et al. (2021a), Castro et al. (2021b) used cumin and dill, and Štrbac et al. (2021) and Pensel et al. (2014) evaluated thyme and oregano.

Figure 1. Percentage of studies using Rosmarinus officinalis, Origanum majorana, Origanum vulgare, Thymus vulgaris, and Cuminum cyminum from 2000 to 2021 for parasite control.

Figure 1

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The list of plants tested in vitro or in vivo and their effects on different parasite stages are listed in Tables 1-5. Some papers appear duplicated in the tables because the authors used two plants for the study or more than one parasite for the same plant.L

Table 1. Relationship of the plant Cuminum cynimum with parasites that have been studied in in vitro studies.

Parasite Product Concentration Activity Reference
Fasciola hepatica Essential oil 2.06, 1.03, 0.51, 0.25, 0.13, 0.06, 0.03, 0.016 mg/mL; Ovicidal action: 2.06 to 0.06 mg/mL: 100%; Silva et al. (2020)
0.03 mg/mL: 99%;
0.16 mg/mL: 98%;
Haemonchus contortus Essential oil 9.4, 4.7, 2.35, 1.17, 0.58 mg/mL; Hatching inhibition: 9.4 to 0.58 mg/mL: 98.62 to 93.95%; Castro et al. (2021a),
Castro et al. (2021b)
Inhibition development: 9.4 to 2.35 mg/mL: 69.12 to 49.5%;
Larval migration inhibition: 9.4 to 0.58 mg/mL: 23.45 to 10.8%;
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Table 2. Relationship of Origanum majorana with parasites that have already been studied in in vitro and/or in vivo tests.

Parasite Product Concentration Activity Reference
Toxoplasma gondii Essential oil 50 µg/mL Growth inhibition rate: 63.36 ± 6.66; Elazab et al. (2021)
Toxocara spp. Essential oil 6, 3, 1.5, 0.75, 0.37, 0.18 mg/mL; Embryo inhibition: 0.18 to 6 mg/mL: 92.32% to 100%;
Larvicidal activity: 1.5 to 6 mg/mL: 100%;
Haemonchus contortus Essential oil Essential oil (eggs): 8, 4, 2, 1 mg/mL. Hatching inhibition: 4 and 8 mg/mL: ±60 to 80%. Abidi et al. (2020)
Essential oil: (adult nematodes) 0.5, 0.25, 0.125 mg/mL Adult nematode mortality: 0.5 mg/mL: 50% after 8 h
Heligmosomoides polygyrus Essential oil in mice diet 5000 and 4000 mg/kg Total worm reduction: 76.33 to 62.59%. Abidi et al. (2020)
Reduction of the number of eggs in the feces: 5000 mg/kg: 74%.
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Table 3. Relationship of Origanum vulgare with parasites that have already been studied in in vitro and/or in vivo tests.

Parasite Product Concentration Activity Reference
Trypanosoma cruzi Essential oil For epimastigotes: 25 to 250 μg/mL Inhibition of epimastigotes growth: 200 μg/mL: 50%. Santoro et al. (2007a)
For trypomastigotes: 25 to 400 μg/mL Trypomastigote cell lysis: 200 μg/mL: ± 95%.
Cryptosporidium parvum Essential oil 60 μg/mL In vitro growth reduction: 55.6 ± 10.4% Gaur et al. (2018)
Eimeria spp. Essential oil in chicken diets 500 ppm Fewer intestinal lesions and more weight gain Mohiti-Asli & Ghanaatparast-Rashti (2015)
Giardia lamblia Hydroalcoholic extract 100 and 200 mg/mL per 120 min Cyst viability: 100 mg/mL: 20% and 200 mg/mL: ± 5%. Davoodi & Abbasi-Maleki (2018)
Leishmania major Essential oil 640 to 10 µg/mL Increased leishmanicidal effects on L. panamensis Sanchez-Suarez et al. (2013)
Leishmania braziliensis
Leishmanis panamensis
Haemonchus spp. Dye 80 to 0.62 mg/mL Hatchability inhibition: tincture of 80 to 20 mg/mL: 100%. Dias de Castro et al. (2013)
Trichostrongylus spp. Hydroalcoholic extract (HAE) HAE: 80 mg/mL: 96.7 ± 1.51% and 40 mg/mL: 80 ± 1.44%.
Oesophagostomun Aqueous extract (AQE) AQE: 80 mg/mL: 49.8 ± 2.24%
Toxocara spp. Essential oil 6, 3, 1.5, 0.75, 0.37, 0.18 mg/mL Embryo inhibition: 6 to 0.18 mg/mL: 100 to 88.15%.
Larvicidal activity: 6 to 0.37 mg/mL: 100%.
Haemonchus spp. Essential oil 50, 12.5, 3.125, 0.195, 0.049 mg/mL Embryo inhibition: 50 to 0.049 mg/mL: 100%. Štrbac et al. (2021)
Trichostrongylys spp. Teladorsagia spp.
Chabertia spp.
Echinococcus granulosus Essential oil 10 µg/mL Scholex viability: 22.3 ± 1.2% after 60 d Pensel et al. (2014)
Eimeria spp. Supplementation in sheep and lamb diet 4 g/day sheep Oocyst reduction and helps with weight gain Dudko et al. (2018)
2 g/day lambs
Ascaridia galli Ethanolic extract 50 mg/mL % infertile eggs from day 10 to day 21: 100 to 61%. Villanueva et al. (2015)
Cooperia spp. Essential oil 10000, 5000, 1000, 100, 10, and 1 ppm Surviving larvae: 0% at 1000 ppm/day1 to 1.5 ± 1.3% at 1 ppm/day28 Galuppi et al. (2009)
Trichostrongylus spp.
Ostertagia spp.
Oesophagostomun spp.
Haemconchus spp.
Bunostomum spp.
Nematodirus spp.
Haemonchus contortus Aqueous suspension in sheep diet 260 mg/kg Reduction in parasite load: 64.9%. Munguía-Xóchichua et al. (2013)
Giardia lamblia Supplementation canine dog diet 100 g/animal/day 82.33% reduction in symptoms and parasite load Mosquera Rodríguez (2016)
Echinococcus spp. Macroemulsion (MAE) MAE: 10%. Protoscoleces mortality rate: 100% after 15 min in all three concentrations. Soleimani et al. (2021)
Microemulsion (MIE) MIE: 0.6 to 1%.
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Table 4. Relationship of Rosmarinus officinalis with parasites that have already been studied in in vitro and/or in vivo tests.

Parasite Product Concentration Activity Reference
Trypanosoma cruzi Essential oil (EO) 50 and 100 μl/mL Epimastigote inviability: OE 50 μL/mL: 96.2% and 100 uL/mL: 100%. Rojas et al. (2010)
Acanthamoeba poluphaga Essential oil 1, 2, and 4 mg/mL Cell death: 2 and 4 mg/mL: 100% in 144 h. Anacarso et al. (2019)
1 mg/mL: 86% after 144 h. Change in trophozoite morphology
Leishmania major Essential oil 0.875, 1.75, 2.5, 5, and 10 μg/mL Cellular alteration causing infeasibility. Bouyahya et al. (2017)
Leishmanis infantum
Leishmania tropica
Leishmanis major Essential oil OE and NE: 0.0625, 0.125, 0.25, 0.5, and 1 μg/mL Mean macrophage infection rate: OE 0.125 μg/mL: 39.33 ± 6.02%. Shokri et al. (2017)
Nanoemulsion (NE) NE 0.0625 μg/mL: 54.33 ± 7.02%
Toxocara spp. Essential oil 6, 3, 1.5, 0.75, 0.37, and 0.18 mg/mL Embryo inhibition: 6 to 0.18 mg/mL:
70.52 to 68.45%.
Larvicidal activity: 6 to 3 mg/mL: 97.97 to 95.13%.
Haemonchus spp. Essential oil 227.5, 113.7, 56.8, 28.4, 14.2, and 7.1 mg/mL Embryo inhibition: 227.5 to 7.1 mg/mL: 100 to 97.4%. Pinto et al. (2019)
Ostertagia spp. Inhibition of larval migration: 227.5 and 113.7 mg/mL: 74 and 70.1%.
Trichostrongylus spp. 56.8 to 7.1 mg/mL: 55.3 to 20%.
Echinococcus granulosus Essential oil 10 µg/mL Reduced cell viability: 71% on day 7 Albani et al. (2014)
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Table 5. Relationship of Thymus vulgaris with parasites that have already been studied in in vitro and/or in vivo tests.

Parasite Product Concentration Activity Reference
Trypanosoma cruzi Essential oil For epimastigotes: 25 to 250 μg/mL Growth inhibition: 200 μg/mL: 100%. Santoro et al. (2007a)
For trypomastigotes: 25 to 400 μg/mL Cell lysis: 100 μg/mL: 100%.
Trichinella spiralis Alcoholic extract mice diet 500 and 1000 mg/kg 500 mg/kg: Decrease of adult worm in the intestine: 79.4%. Attia et al. (2015)
% of larvae in muscle: 1000 mg/kg: 71.3%
Haemonchus contortus Essential oil (EO) EO (hatchability and motility): 50, 25, 12.5, 6.25, 3.125, 1.562, 0.781 mg/mL Hatchability inhibition: 50 to 0.78 mg/mL: >94%. Ferreira et al. (2016)
EO (larval development): 1 to 0.0625 mg/mL L3 larval motility inhibition: 50 to 0.78 mg/mL: >84%.
Larval development inhibition: 1 to 0.006 mg/mL: >99%.
Caenorhabditis elegans Essential oil 2, 3, and 4% Dead adult nematodes: 2%: 80% in 48 h.
Larval hatching 2, 3, and 4%: >10%.
Decreased adult motility at the concentrations tested.
Haemonchus contortus Essential oil 9.4, 4.7, 2.35, 1.17, 0.58, and 0.29 mg/mL Embryo inhibition: 9.4 to 0.29 mg/mL: 100 to 77.6%. Castro et al. (2021a), Castro et al. (2021b)
Developmental inhibition: 9.4 to 2.3 5 mg/mL: 100 to 65.68%.
Larval migration inhibition: 9.4 to 1.17 mg/mL: 95.3 to 69.6%.
Haemonchus spp. Trichostrongylys spp. Essential oil 50, 12.5, 3.125, 0.195, and 0.049 mg/mL Embryo inhibition: 50 to 0.049 mg/mL: 100 to 98.5 ± 0.58%. Štrbac et al. (2021)
Teladorsagia spp. Chabertia spp.
Echinococcus granulosus Essential oil 10 µg/mL Scolex viability: 35.3 ± 2.8% after 60 d. Pensel et al. (2014)
Blastocystis hominis Ethanolic extract 4, 2, 1, and 0.5 mg/mL In vitro growth inhibition: 24 h: 100 to 68%. El-Sayed (2009)
48 h: 100 to 73.8%;
72 h: 100 to 80.4%;
96 h: 100 to 84.8%.
Echinococcus spp. Alcoholic extract 2500, 1500, 1000, and 500 µg/mL Scolex death: 2500 µg/mL: 100% after 6 days. Yones et al. (2011)
Other concentrations: 100% after 7days
Toxocara vitulorum Essential oil in rats’ diet 42.5 mg/kg Decreased number of larvae in the organs of infected rats Amin & El-Kabany (2013)
Trichostrongylus spp. Haemonchus spp. Osephagostonum spp. Diluted in water with nor in lambs’ diets 0.3 g/kg Decreased number of eggs in the feces of 37.5% of the animals on day 14 Cruz et al. (2017)
Eimeria stiedae Essential oil in rabbits’ diet 500 mg/kg Decrease in stool oocysts: 0% day 34 Abu El Ezz et al. (2020)
Giardia lamblia Methanolic extract 300 µg/mL In vitro growth inhibition: 95.86%.
Trichomonas vaginalis Methanolic extract 300 µg/mL In vitro growth inhibition: 96.42%.
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Multiple biological activities have already been attributed to these plants in research. In a literature review of cumin by Al-Snafi (2016), the authors reported various activities, such as antimicrobial, insecticide, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, hypotensive, bronchodilator, antioxidant, anticancer, and antidiabetic activities, among others. Its anthelmintic activity seems to be little studied since few studies were found in this review. For marjoram, its biological activities documented by science include antioxidant, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, antidiabetic, antidrop, antimutagenic activity, anti-ulcer, antibacterial, antifungal, and antiprotozoal activities (Prerna & Vasudeva, 2015). Documented properties of oregano include antimicrobial, antioxidant, hepatoprotective (Oniga et al., 2018), anticancer (Elshafie et al., 2017), and antiparasitic properties, as reported in this study. Rosemary has been reported to have antibacterial, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, antioxidant, antinociceptive, and analgesic properties, among others. In contrast, thyme has antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitussive, antimicrobial, antifungal, antioxidant, antiviral, and antiparasitic properties (Dauqan & Abdullah, 2017).

In this review, a total of 25 genera of parasites were found that have been tested with these plants (Figure 2). Of the 25 genera found, 20 were classified at the species level. The species belonging to the genus Haemonchus were the most tested, followed by Leishmania, Trichostrongylus, and Toxocara. Most of the parasite species found in this review can infect humans.

Figure 2. Genera of endoparasites most frequently found in in vitro and/or in vitro studies in the LILACS, PubMed, and Google Scholar databases from 2000 to 2021.

Figure 2

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The large number of studies observed is justified by the important role of medicinal plants in modern medicine, which is an economically viable alternative for the population. In addition, they have natural compounds that, with the advancement in research, present an easy method of manipulation so that they are less toxic and more efficient and also because they have biological activities similar to allopathic medicines (Gadelha et al., 2013).

Conclusions

All the plants investigated in this review have antiparasitic activity against the endoparasites tested, with Origanum vulgare L. (oregano) and Thymus vulgaris L. (thyme) standing out as the plants that have been studied the most. Cuminum cyminum L. (cumin) was the plant with the least number of evaluations in studies regarding antiparasitic action. The endoparasite genera most studied were Haemonchus, Leishmania, Trichostrongylus, and Toxocara, respectively. The plants evaluated in the identified studies showed action at different stages of parasite development, indicating the potential of these molecules for their use as phytotherapy.

Acknowledgements

Universidade Federal de Pelotas

Footnotes

How to cite: Strothmann, A. L., Berne, M. E. A., Capella, G. A., Moura, M. Q., Terto, W. D. S., Costa, C. M., & Pinheiro, N. B. (2022). Antiparasitic treatment using herbs and spices: A review of the literature of the phytotherapy. Brazilian Journal of Veterinary Medicine, 44, e004722. https://doi.org/10.29374/2527-2179.bjvm004722

Ethics statement: Not apply

Financial support: ALS and CMC – Received scholarship from CNPq (Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico).

GAC, MQM, WDST and NBP – Received scholarship from CAPES (Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior).

MEAB – none.

Availability of complementary results: The study was carried out at Laboratório de Helmintologia, Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia do Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Pelotas – UFPel, Pelotas, RS, Brazil.

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