Table 1.

Key considerations for surrogate selection.

Surrogate	Type	Biofidelic geometry and inertial properties	Biofidelic tissue mechanics	Reference measurement	Repeatability	Max severity	Cost	Ethical considerations
Non-biofidelic test devices	Mechanical	No	No	Yes	Excellent	High	Low	No
ATDs	Mechanical	Limited	Limited	Yes	Good	High	Moderate	No
PMHS	Biological	Yes	Yes	Limited	Limited	High	High	Yes
Human volunteers	Biological	Yes	Yes	Limited	Limited	Minimal	Low	Yes