Table 3.
Barriers to cervical cancer screening
| Sn | Themes | No of studies |
The proportion of respondents reporting a barrier in each study (%) | ||||||||||||||
|
| |||||||||||||||||
| a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | i | j | k | l | m | n | o | |||
| 1. |
No knowledge of cervical cancer and screening |
13 | NS | 50.0 | 95.5 | -- | 51.9 | 49.8 | 20.1 | 46.1 | 77.4 | 74.0 | 64.2 | 51.7 | NS | 57.1 | -- |
| 2. | Health service factors | ||||||||||||||||
| Difficulty in assessing screening | 15 | NS | 42.1 | 0.8 | 65.0 | 21.1 | 3.9 | 35.0 | 11.6 | 35.5 | 70.0 | 27.7 | 35.1 | -- | 14.3 | -- | |
| Lack of health education | NS | -- | -- | 65.8 | -- | -- | -- | -- | 77.4 | 39.0 | -- | 39.5 | -- | -- | -- | ||
| No screening facility | -- | 59.9 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 70.0 | -- | 37.1 | -- | -- | NS | ||
| Bad attitude of health workers | -- | 51.3 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 51.6 | 32.0 | -- | 22.9 | NS | -- | NS | ||
| Time constraint | -- | 48.0 | -- | -- | 13.2 | -- | -- | -- | 62.9 | 26.0 | -- | -- | -- | -- | NS | ||
| Poor quality of health services | -- | -- | 0.5 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | NS | ||
| Not recommended by physician | -- | -- | -- | 69.2 | -- | -- | -- | 5.4 | -- | 47.0 | 41.4 | -- | -- | -- | -- | ||
| 3. | Screening is unnecessary | ||||||||||||||||
| Lack of interest | 10 | NS | -- | 1.8 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | |
| Insignificant because of no cure | -- | 25.8 | -- | -- | 36.8 | 3.4 | -- | 12.5 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 9.1 | NS | ||
| Absence of symptoms | -- | -- | -- | -- | 51.6 | 32.0 | 51.2 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | NS | -- | -- | ||
| 4. | Fear | ||||||||||||||||
| Fear of positive result | 12 | NS | 65.1 | -- | -- | 37.6 | 2.4 | -- | 11.6 | 61.3 | -- | 10.5 | 37.1 | NS | -- | -- | |
| Fear of painful procedure | -- | 46.7 | -- | 39.7 | -- | -- | -- | -- | 33.9 | 28.0 | 5.4 | 36.6 | NS | -- | NS | ||
| 5. | Financial constraint | 12 | NS | 45.4 | 0.8 | 64.5 | 19.6 | 5.5 | 45.2 | 5.4 | 35.5 | 39.0 | 12.3 | 31.7 | -- | -- | -- |
| 6. | Misconceptions | ||||||||||||||||
| Exposure to diseases | 7 | -- | 27.0 | -- | -- | 20.6 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | NS | -- | -- | |
| Cannot have the cancer | -- | 56.1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 46.0 | 20.1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | ||
| For infected women only | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 22.6 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | ||
| Avoid detection of diseases | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 35.0 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | ||
| 7. | Discrimination and stigma | 3 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 80.4 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | NS | -- | NS |
| 8. | Modesty concerns | ||||||||||||||||
| Embarrassment | 8 | -- | 52.9 | -- | -- | -- | -- | 94.0 | -- | 35.5 | -- | 7.6 | -- | NS | 1.9 | -- | |
| Violation of privacy | -- | 28.3 | -- | -- | 51.5 | -- | -- | -- | 46.8 | -- | -- | 18.5 | NS | -- | -- | ||
| 9. | Attributes of women | ||||||||||||||||
| Lack of education | 9 | NS | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | NS | |
| Need for spousal approval | -- | 51.0 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 56.5 | -- | 4.2 | 22.4 | NS | -- | NS | ||
| Religious belief | -- | -- | -- | -- | 8.8 | -- | 10.1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | 14.1 | NS | -- | NS | ||
| Location of residence | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | NS | -- | -- | ||
| 10. | Cultural belief | 4 | -- | 15.2 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 14.1 | NS | -- | NS |
a = Ndikom and Ofi (2012), b = Titiloye et al. (2017), c = Abiodun et al. (2013), d = Amu et al (2017), e = Chigbu and Aniebue (2011), f = Nwankwo et al. (2011), g = Ogwunga et al. (2020), h = Ezem (2007), i = Amos and Awolude (2019), j = Bammeke and Ndikom (2014), k = Okunowo and Smith-Okonu (2020), l = Ndikom et al. (2020), m = Isa Modibbo et al. (2016), n = Hyacinth et al. (2012), o = Leo et al. (2020), NS = Not specified, -- = Not reported.