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. 2022 Nov 12;13:516. doi: 10.1186/s13287-022-03196-1

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 4 — Effects of EMS and EMS combined with EPC treatment on microvasculature density after BICAL. A A 3 × 3 mm craniotomy window was opened for microvasculature and microcirculation measurement (upper panel, black line box). Two weeks after the EMS procedure (lower panel, white dotted box), the temporalis muscle, (marked as T) adhered to the brain surface well, indicating that the EMS procedure was successful. B Under videoscopic view, the vasculature, including the artery (a) and vein (v), was clearly seen on the brain surface. An obvious paucity of microcirculation on the cortical surface was noted 3 weeks after BICAL. C After quantification, microvasculature density decreased obviously after BICAL and was improved after EMS and EMS combined with EPC treatment. Scale bar = 100 μm. *p < 0.05, ***p < 0.001, n = 5–6