Table 1.
Microbiota-dependent and independent effects of FOS on paracellular permeability and/or TJs.
| Treatment Characteristics | [FOS] | Model/Experimental Setup | Type of Study | Observed Effects on PP and/or TJs | Type of Effect | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| FOS (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) | 0.1 mg/mL | T84 monolayers | In vitro | Ca2+ switch assay under normal and LPS-challenged conditions: ↑ TEER/acceleration of TJ re-assembly (better effect with basolateral application) | MID | [166] |
| Re-localization of ZO-1, occludin and claudin-1, no alterations on TJ proteins expression | ||||||
| FOS (Nutraflora®, Nutrition GTC, Golden, CO, USA ), DP 2–9 | 10% w/v | EHEC-exposed Caco-2Bbe1 monolayers | In vitro | Pre-incubation/ challenged cells: ↑ TEER, redistribution of ZO-1, ↑ mRNA ZO-1, ↑ occludin protein but not mRNA |
MID | [81] |
| Unchallenged cells: no effect on TEER, ↑ mRNA & protein ZO-1, ↑ occludin protein but not mRNA, no effect on claudin-1 | ||||||
| FOS (Nutraflora®), DP 2–9 | 10% w/v | Duodenal organoids | In vitro | Pre-incubation/challenged organoids: ↑ TEER, ↓ PP of FITC-D | MID | [81] |
| Unchallenged organoids: ↑ TEER | ||||||
| FOS Frutalose (OFP; Sensus), DP ≤ 10 | 100 mg/L | PMA-exposed T84 monolayers | In vitro | Pre-incubation: ↑ TEER | MID | [179] |
| FOS Orafti® L95, 75% w/w syrup, FOS:94.8 w/w ds | 2% v/v | Caco-2 monolayers | In vitro | ↑ TEER, no effect on TJ gene or mRNA expression | MID | [171] |
| FOS (Orafti®, Beneo Orafti, Tienen, Belgium) P95, DP 7–8 | 2% | DON-exposed Caco-2 monolayers | In vitro | Apical & basolateral pre-treatment: ↑ TEER, ↓ PP of LY dose-dependently | MID | [23] |
| Total treatment: ↑ TEER during calcium-switch assay at highest C | ||||||
| FOS (Nutraflora®), DP 2–9 | 10% w/v | Caco-2Bbe1 monolayers | In vitro | Pre-incubation/challenged cells: unsuccessful attenuation of F-actin microfilaments rearrangement, no effect on TEER, PP of FITC-D and ZO-1 redistribution | MID | [180] |
| Unchallenged cells: no effect on FITC-D PP | ||||||
| FOS (34% 1-kestose, 53% nystose, 9% 1F-β-fructofuranosylnystose) | 100 mmol/L | Caco-2 monolayers | In vitro | ↓ TEER, ↑ PP of LY | MID | [175] |
| FOS (Meioligo W, Meiji Co., Tokyo, Japan) | 5% | MCD mice (NASH) | In vivo | Improvement of ZO-1 abundance | MD | [184] |
| FOS (Nutraflora®) | 6% | 5′FU-exposed mice (Mucositis) | In vivo | Pretreatment and total treatment: ↑ mRNA ZO-1 & occludin, ↓ PP of 99mTc-DTPA | MD | [185] |
| FOS (Nutraflora®) | 6% | 5′FU-exposed mice (Mucositis) | In vivo | ↓ PP of 99mTc-DTPA | MD | [186] |
| FOS (P95S, Quantum Hi-Tech Biological Co. Ltd., Guangdong, China) | 1.2% | Chronic stress exposed mice | In vivo | ↑ mRNA & proteins Claudin-1, Occludin & ZO-1 | MD | [187] |
| FOS | 4 g/kg/day | HFD-fed mice (NAFLD) | In vivo | FOS alone and as synbiotic (Lactobacillus paracasei N111): ↑ occludin-1 & claudin-1 proteins | MD | [188] |
| FOS (Solarbio Biotechnology, Beijing, China), 95.93% | 2%/day | OVA-exposed mice (Food allergy) | In vivo | Enhancement of TJ complex- electron density | MD | [189] |
| PB (Center for Anti-aging Research, Nu Skin Enterprises, Shanghai, China) composed of GOS, FOS, inulin, and anthocyanins | 1.26 mg/g/day | Trichinella spiralis-exposed mice (IBS) | In vivo | Pretreatment and total treatment: ↑ occludin | MD | [163] |
| FOS (Nutraflora®), DP 2–9 | 10% w/v | Citrobacter rodentium-exposed mice | In vivo | No effect on FITC-D PP | MD | [180] |
| FOS (Meiji Seika Kaisha, Ltd., Tokyo, Japan), 6.5% GF5, 43.4% GF4, 40.9% GF3, 7.1% 1-kestose GF2, 2.1% glucose and fructose. | 4 g/kg/day | Healthy weaned piglets | In vivo | ↑ mRNA ZO-1, occludin & claudin-1 | MD | [170] |
| Shanghai Lanpu Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China; FOS ≥ 20% | 2.5 mg/kg/day | ETEC-exposed weaned piglets | In vivo | ↑ mRNA ZO-1 & occludin (exceeding control) | MD | [190] |
| FOS, GOS, MFGM | 7.5 g/L/day | Weaned piglets | In vivo | ↑ mRNA ZO-1, claudin-1, occludin & E-cadherin | MD | [191] |
| FOS purity 93%g; Raftilose P95, Orafti® | 60 g/kg/day | Salmonella enterica-exposed rats | In vivo | ↑ urinary CrEDTA excretion (through TJ) | MD | [195] |
| FOS purity 93%g; Raftilose P95, Orafti® | 60 g/kg/day | Healthy rats | In vivo | ↑ urinary CrEDTA excretion (through TJ), no alterations on cadherins, ZO-1 claudin 2 & 4 genes expression | MD | [196] |
| Enzymatically synthesized FOS, DP 3.5, MW 550Da | 5 g/day | SHIME® inoculated with fecal sample from IBD patient and coupled with co-cultures of Caco-2 cells and THP1 macrophages | In vitro | ↑ TEER | MD | [192] |
| FOS Orafti® were boiled for 20min, following in vitro digestion and human fecal fermentation | 50 mg of an equivalent carbohydrate was fermented using 5% of fecal inoculum | Caco-2 cells incubated with FOS ferment supernatant | In vitro | ↑ TEER | MD | [193] |
| FOS (Sigma-Aldrich), chicory root-originated, ≥90% | 5g/L | SHIME® inoculated with fecal sample from healthy donors and coupled with co-cultures of Caco2:HT29-MTX-E12 | In vitro | ↑ TEER | MD | [194] |
99mTc-DTPA, Technetium-99mTc-DTPA; DON, Mycotoxin deoxynivalenol; EHEC, Enterohemorrhagic E. coli; ETEC, Enteropathogenic E. coli; FITC-D, Fluorescein isothiocyanate–dextran; FOS, Fructooligosaccharides; FU, Fluorouracil; GOS, Galactooligosaccharides; LY, Lucifer yellow; IBS, Irritable bowel syndrome; MCD, Methionine-choline-deficient; MD, Microbiota-dependent; MID, Microbiota-independent; NASH, Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis; OVA, Ovalbumin; PMA, Phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate; PP, Paracellular permeability; SHIME, Simulator of the Human Intestinal Microbial Ecosystem; TEER, Transepithelial electrical resistance; TJ, Tight junction.