Table 2.
Microbiota-dependent and independent effects of GOS on paracellular permeability and/or TJs.
| Treatment Characteristics | [GOS] | Model/Experimental Setup | Type of Study | Observed Effects on PP and/or TJs | Type of Effect | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vivinal® GOS syrup (FrieslandCampina Domo, The Netherlands), 45% GOS, DP 2–8 | 2% | DON-exposed Caco-2 monolayers |
In vitro | ↑ TEER (Acceleration of TJ reassembly) during Ca2+ switch, Pre-incubation: ↑ TEER, ↓ PP of LY, FITC-dextran, attenuation of claudin-3 disturbed expression and localization |
MID | [204] |
| Vivinal® GOS syrup, (FrieslandCampina Domo, The Netherlands), 59% GOS, DP 2–6 | 0.5, 1, 2% w/w | DON-exposed Caco-2 monolayers |
In vitro | ↑ TEER during Ca2+ switch (2% time dependently), Pre-incubation: ↑ TEER, ↓ PP of LY dose dependently |
MID | [23] |
| Individual DP2, DP3 from Vivinal® GOS syrup | 0.75% | ↑ TEER (both), ↓ PP of LY (only DP2), combination: ↑ TEER, ↓ PP of LY |
||||
| Purified Vivinal® GOS, (FrieslandCampina Domo, The Netherlands), 97% GOS | 2% w/v | ↑ TEER during Ca2+ switch, Pre-incubation: ↑ TEER, ↓ PP of LY | ||||
| Vivinal® GOS syrup (FrieslandCampinaDomo, The Netherlands), DP 2–8, 59% w/w GOS | 1, 2.5% | Heat stress-exposed Caco-2 monolayers | In vitro | Pre-treatment: ↑ TEER, ↓ PP of LY | MID | [205] |
| Nutrabiotic® GOS (Dairy Crest Ltd., Esher, Surrey, UK), 66.5% w/w dry solids GOS, DP 2–7 | 2% v/v = 1.4% w/v GOS | Caco-2 monolayers | In vitro | ↑ TEER after 24 h-exposure, no effect on TJ gene or mRNA expression | MID | [171] |
| Vivinal® GOS-WPC (FrieslandCampina, Amersfoort, The Netherlands), 27.5% GOS | 100 μg/mL | Caco-2 monolayers | In vitro | Non-significant increase in TJ mRNA/protein levels | MID | [206] |
| HT-29-MTX monolayers | ↑ claudin-1, occludin, ZO-1 mRNA, ↑ claudin-1, -3, occludin, ZO-1 proteins | |||||
| TNF-α-exposed Caco-2/HT-29-MTX co-culture monolayers | Pre-treatment: ↑ TEER | |||||
| Vivinal® GOS syrup (FrieslandCampina) with GOS- plant sterol enriched milk-based fruit beverages (Global Technology Center, Alcantarilla, Murcia, Spain), 1.8 g/100 mL | 1:5 v/v | Caco-2 monolayers | In vitro | ↑ TEER under oxidative stress-challenged and unchallenged conditions |
MID | [207] |
| Vivinal® GOS syrup (FrieslandCampina Domo, The Netherlands), 45% GOS, DP 2–8 | 1% GOS (1 kg containing 22.22 g/kg VGOS) | DON-exposed challenged mice | In vivo | Prevention of claudin-3 mRNA overexpression and maintenance of its cellular distribution, ↓ claudin-2 mRNA without attenuation of FITC-D permeability | MD | [204] |
| Yuanye Biotechnology Co. (Shanghai, China) | 0.2 g/100 g BW | E. coli O157-exposed mice | In vivo | ↑ mRNA occludin, claudin, ZO-1 | MD | [202] |
| GOS 100%: 52.86% trisaccharide, 36.39% tetrasaccharide, 10.75% oligosaccharides with DP ≥ 5 (patent application no. 202011427659.7, China) | 0.25, 0.5g/kg BW | LPS-exposed mice | In vivo | Pre-treatment: ↑ mRNA ZO-1, occludin, claudin-1 | MD | [214] |
| Vivinal® GOS syrup (FrieslandCampin Domo, Borculo, The Netherlands), DP 2–8, 59% w/w GOS | 1, 2.5% | Heat stress-exposed broilers | In vivo | Total treatment: attenuation of ↑ mRNA expression of claudin-5 and ZO-1 dose dependently | MD | [213] |
| GOS-90S Quantum Hi-Tech Biological Co., Ltd. (China), DP 2–8, 90% (w/w) GOS | 1 g/kg BW/day | Suckling piglets | In vivo | ↑ occludin mRNA, ↑ ZO-1, occludin protein levels | MD | [203] |
| Quantum Hi-Tech Biological Co., Ltd. (China), 90% GOS | 1 g/kg BW/day | Suckling piglets | In vivo | ↑ ZO-1, claudin-1 but not occludin protein levels | MD | [200] |
| Vivinal® GOS syrup 75% DM (FrieslandCampinaDomo, Borculo, The Netherlands), DP 2–8, 59% w/w GOS | 600–1600 mL/piglet/day (0.8% FOS) | Weaned piglets | In vivo | ↑ claudin-1, ZO-2 mRNA and ZO-1, occludin mRNA and protein levels | MD | [217] |
| GOS/CGMP 2:1 (Beijing Sanyuan Foods Co., Ltd., Beijing, China), 90% GOS w/w, DM 3 | 10 g/day | Piglets fed by GOS treated sows | In vivo | ↑ mRNA claudin-1, claudin-2, occludin | MD | [215] |
| Xi’an Deshipu Bio-industry Company, China, 90% GOS | 1 g/day | Sodium taurocholate-exposed rats (SAP) | In vivo | ↑ occludin mRNA and protein (not significant but positively correlated to mRNA increase) | MD | [216] |
| Vivinal® GOS (Friesland Foods Domo, Zwolle, The Netherlands) i.e., 4.9 g/L GOS/Inulin (Beneo HP, Orafti, France) i.e., 0.70 g/L Inulin, (88/12, 5.6 g/L) | 10.9 g/L/day (V dependent of age) | Newborn rats | In vivo | No alterations in mRNA claudin-2, -3, no effect on PP of Dextran, ↓ mRNA ZO-1 | MD | [218] |
DON, Mycotoxin deoxynivalenol; FITC-D, Fluorescein isothiocyanate–dextran; GOS, Galactooligosaccharides; LY, Lucifer yellow; MD, Microbiota-dependent; MID, Microbiota-independent; PP, Paracellular permeability; SAP, Severe acute pancreatitis; TEER, Transepithelial electrical resistance; TJ, Tight junction.