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. 2022 Oct 28;14(21):4578. doi: 10.3390/polym14214578

Table 2.

Starch-based nanocomposites using various biodegradable polymers in regard to their applications and properties.

Starch-Based Nanocomposites Application Properties References
Native (TPS) or oxidized (TPS-ox) corn starch/chitosan (CS)/bentonite (Bent) Mulch film The addition of 4% CS/Bent improved water resistance (decreased water solubility), radiometric, and antibacterial properties. Decreased mechanical property (tensile strength and elastic modulus: TPS-ox > TPS-ox/CS/Bent > TPS > TPS/CS/Bent). [83]
Native (TPS) or oxidized (TPS-ox) corn starch/chitosan (CS)/bentonite (Bent) Mulch film The addition of 4% CS/Bent increased the crystallinity (3.30 and 3.00%) and led to a slight increase in thermal stability (Tmax 139.2 and 126.9 °C) in TPS and TPS-ox, respectively. [86]
Corn starch-g-poly(AA-co-AAm)/natural char nanoparticles (NCNPs)/urea Bi-functional slow-release fertilizers Provided improved biodegradability, soil water-retention capacity (35.6% and 33.2% at pH 4.5 and 5.5, respectively, after 6 days), water absorbency (215.1 g/g) along with the slow release of urea (73% in deionized water and 37% in NaCl). [84]
Urea encapsulated with starch (10%)/PVA (5%) with crosslinker acrylic acid (2%) and citric acid (2%) Slow release of fertilizer Releasing efficiency of starch/PVA/acrylic acid and starch/PVA/citric acid were 70.10 and 50.74%, respectively.
Improved the growth factors in spinach plants		 [89]
Corn starch/Debranched starch NPs (DSNPs) Food packaging Addition of 5% DSNPs increased the tensile strength (from 0.95 to 1.73 MPa) and decreased the water vapor permeability (7.11 to 4.91 × 10−10 gPa−1h−1m−1) and oxygen transmission rate (394 to 81.61 cm3/m2⋅day) [49]
Starch NPs/Ag NPs Coating material for food packaging Antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhi, and Escherichia coli. [50]
Cross-linked wheat starch (CLWS)/sodium montmorillonite (Na-MMT)/TiO2 NPs Food packaging material Showed exfoliated structure.
Adding Na-MMT (5%) and TiO2 NPs (1%) into CLWS showed reduced water vapor permeability (from 9.1 to 4.8 × 10−5 g/m.d.Pa) and water solubility (100–50.35%), and increased thermal stability, tensile strength (2.49–5.56 MPa), and Young’s modulus (0.71–1.09 MPa) in comparison to native wheat starch.
CLWS/Na-MMT/TiO2 NPs showed better UV-blocking properties than CLWS/Na-MMT.		 [69]
Sweet potato starch (SPS)/montmorillonite (MMT)/thyme essential oil (TEO) Food packaging The addition of MMT improved the tensile (44.91%), Young’s modulus (135.69 MPa), and water vapor barrier (0.022 gm/m2/day) and hindered the biodegradability of SPS.
The addition of TEO decreased the mechanical and water vapor barrier properties of SPS/MMT nanocomposites.
The addition of MMT and TEO improved water resistance by 50%.		 [100]
Starch (potato, wheat, and corn, high amylose corn) carboxyl methylcellulose (CMC)/Na-MMT Food packaging Corn starch/CMC/Na-MMT nanocomposite showed higher tensile strength, glass transition temperature, thermal stability, crystallinity, lower solubility, and water vapor permeability. [98]
Cassava starch/glycerol/Na-bentonite nanoclay/cinnamon essential oil Antimicrobial food packaging pork meatballs Antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, and Staphylococcus aureus.
Improved the antimicrobial efficacy in pork meatballs stored under ambient and refrigeration conditions.		 [72]
Starch/polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)/cinnamaldehyde (Cin)/micro fibrillated cellulose (MFC) Controlled-release active packaging film MFC improved the tensile strength, crystallinity, hydrophobicity, and antimicrobial activity (against S. putrefaciens) with reduced flexibility.
The oxygen and water vapor permeability reduced at 1 and 2.5% MFC and increased at higher concentrations.
MFC at 1 and 7.5% controlled the release of Cin.		 [102]
Corn starch (CS)/nanocellulose (NC)/glycerol (GL)/polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH) Packaging material for edible oil Optimum composition for CS-based nanocomposite: 0.89% NC, 2.53% GL, and 1.89% PVOH.
Tensile strength 8.92 MPa, elongation at break 41.92%, bursting strength 556 kPa, and WVP 7.07 × 10−10 g/m.s.Pa, oxygen transmission rate 3.56 × 10−5 cm3/m2 d.Pa.
Good heat salability.		 [94]
Starch from unripe plantain bananas/cellulose nanofibers from banana peels Food packaging Homogenized nanocomposite at five times higher pressure increased the tensile strength (from 7.3–9.9 MP), Young’s modulus (478.6–663.1 MPa), decreased the elongation at break (32.2–20.7%), solubility (32.3–29.0%), WVP (10.7–6.0 × 10−11 g/m.s.Pa at low RH), sorption (2.73–2.20 × 10−7 mm2/s), and diffusion coefficient (0.42–0.27). [59]
Corn starch (CS)/nanocellulose fiber (NCF)/thymol Antioxidant and antimicrobial food packaging Adding 1.5% of NCF improved the thermal stability, mechanical and water vapor, and oxygen barrier properties of corn starch film.
CS/NCF/thymol composite reported improved thermal stability and flexibility with decreased tensile strength, Young’s modulus, and barrier properties.		 [58]
Starch/cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) Food packaging Improved the tensile strength (2.8 to 17.4 MPa), Young’s modulus (112 to 520 MPa), water resistance (reduced solubility 26.6 to 18.5%), and water barrier properties and decreased surface hydrophilicity (contact angle 38.2 to 96.3°). [60]
TPS/chitin nanofibers (CNF) from fungus Mucor indicus Nanocomposite for food packaging and other applications. Addition of 5 wt.% CNF enhanced Young’s modulus (239%) and tensile strength (by 180%) and reduced the elongation at break and moisture absorption compared to the TPS film. [39]
PVA/starch/Ag NPs from Diospyros lotus fruit extract Wound dressing applications Increased swelling and moisture retention capacity, reduced water vapor transmission.
Better antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus 		[109]
Thermoplastic starch (TPS)/beta-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) NPs Bone tissue engineering materials Adding β-TCP at 10% improved the tensile strength (from 1.67 to 4.8 MPa) and Young’s modulus (from 66.54 to 390.5 MPa), and decreased elongation at break (78.56 to 18.03%) of TPS.
Exhibited non-cytotoxicity effects and excellent biocompatibility.		 [105]
Polylactic acid (PLA)/starch (S)/poly-ε-caprolactone (PCL)/nano hydroxyapatite (nHAp)/ Controlled release of antibacterial triclosan Incorporating nHA (3%) improved the hydrolytic hydrophilicity, hydrolytic degradation, antibacterial activity (against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus), and continuous drug release of PLA/S/PCL film. [110]
Starch-itaconic acid/Fe3O4 NPs (St-IA/Fe3O4) Controlled release of Guaifenesin (GFN) The addition of magnetic Fe3O4 NPs at 0.83% enhanced the drug release percentage from 54.1 to 90.4% within 24 h in pH 7.4.
Adding Fe3O4 NPs improved the wound healing ability in mice (healed after 10 days).
Exhibited low cytotoxicity for human umbilical vein endothelial cells. 		[113]
Graft copolymer hydroxyethyl starch-g-poly(acrylamide-co-acrylic acid)/Ag-Au bimetallic nanocomposite Removal of toxic azo dyes from wastewater Catalytic activities: reduction of 4-nitrophenol to 4-aminophenol and degradation by cleavage of −N = N-the bond of azo dyes (Congo red, Sudan-1, and methyl orange). [122]
Starch-graft-poly(acrylamide) (PAM)/graphene oxide (GO)/hydroxyapatite NPs (nHAp) nanocomposite Recyclable adsorbent for efficient removal of malachite green (MG) dye from aqueous solution PAM/GO and nHAp at 1–5 wt.% reported excellent porosity (31–11%), degradability (41–11% after 15 days), the maximum adsorption capacity of 297 mg/g, excellent regeneration capacity after five consecutive adsorption-desorption cycle of dye (27–14% of MG dye was liberated after 5th cycle, i.e., 77–86% removal efficiency) [126].
Bean starch/sodium montmorillonite (Na-MMT) Removal of Ni2+ from water Adding Na-MMT improved the absorption yield for Ni2+ (from 72 to 97.1% at pH 4.5, initial concentration of 100 ppm) and Co2+ (74.2 to 78.03% at pH 6, initial concentration of 140) in comparison to the bean starch matrix. [116]
MWCNT/starch plasticized with ionic liquid, 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate ([emim+][Ac−]) Packaging, lithium batteries, fuel cells, and dye-sensitized solar cells MWCNT at 0.5 wt.% increased the tensile strength, Young’s modulus, and elongation at the break by 327%, 2484%, and 82%, respectively.
Electrical conductivity increased with MWCNT content with the maximum (56.3 S/m) at 5 wt.% MWCNT.
Starch plasticizer [emim+][Ac−] slightly decreased the thermal stability in comparison to glycerol in the MWCNT/starch nanocomposite.		 [77]
Starch/MWCNT/surfactants such as sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS),
cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), and sodium cholate (SC)		 Electrically conductive biocomposite film CTAB reduced the mechanical properties of starch, while SC had no significant effect.
SC (18.3–25.3°) and CTAB (20.8–32.3°) reduced the contact angle of starch (42.9–45.2°).
CTAB (14.75 S/m) and SC (11.56 S/m) improved the electrical conductivity of starch (2.03 × 10−6 S/m).
CTAB (30.2%), SDS (24.4%), and SC (12%) increased the inhibition of free radicals more than starch.		 [22].
Maize starch/glycerol (20%)/Na-MMT (10%) nanoclay Lightweight architectural constructions Showed intercalated structure and improved tensile properties. [66]