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Dual immunological and proliferative regulation roles of immune checkpoints in tumors. Fifteen immune checkpoints, including PD1, PD-L1, FGL1, CD155, CD47, SIRPα, CD276, IDO1, SIGLEC-15, TIM3, Galectin-9, CD70, CD27, 4-1BBL, and HVEM, all exert dual immunological and proliferative regulation of immune checkpoints in tumors. The related proliferation regulation mechanisms are presented.
