Fig. 4.

Establishment and performance of the model. A The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves of the predictive model. The model demonstrated good discriminating ability, with an AUC of 0.905 in the training cohort and an AUC of 0.898 in the validation cohort. B The predictive model was conducted to develop a nomogram. C Calibration curves of the nomogram for the training cohort. The x-axis represents the probability of brain invasion measured using the model, and the y-axis represents the actual rate of brain invasion. The red represents the discrimination ability of the nomogram, while the diagonal dotted line represents an ideal evaluation by a perfect model. A closer fit to the diagonal dotted line represents a better evaluation. D Decision curve analysis for the predictive model. The x-axis shows the threshold probability, and the y-axis measures the net benefit. The gray line represents all patients with brain invasion, while the black line represents all patients without brain invasion. The red line represents the predictive model