Table 3.

Nanoparticles formulated for sepsis management and its preclinical outcomes.

Organ	Nanotherapeutic system	Composition	In-vitro/In-vivo study	Inference	Reference
Brain	Micellar nanoparticles	CG3R6-TAT (Antimicrobial peptide)	In-vitro MICs study/In-vivo S. aureus-induced meningitis rabbit model	Nanosystem able to cross BBB and suppressed the growth of Staphylococcus aureus in the brain.	[58]
	Nanoparticles	Amphotericin B, Polybutylcyanoacrylate, Tween-80	Cryptococcal meningitis mouse model	Nanosystems offered great potential in drug delivery across BBB	[76]
Lungs	Nanovesicles	25-hydroxycholesterol and didodecyldimethlammonium bromide	In-vivo biodistribution in male ICR mice model	Nanosystems can accumulate in the lung tissues and significantly lower the NF-KB and SREBP2 pathways reducing the inflammatory cytokine levels	[59]
	Bio-responsive nanoparticles	Ciprofloxacin and ((2-[(aminocarbonyl)amino]-5-(4-fluorophenyl)-3-thiophenecarboxamide)	Acute lung bacterial infection mouse model	Nanoparticle targeting to IMEs and local cues as triggers to deliver therapeutics in on-demand manners is demonstrated	[60]
Intestine	Gold nanoparticles	4,6-diamino-2-pyrimidinethiol and gold	Microflora distribution of Au in mice	Developed nanosystem showed great potential as alternatives to oral antibiotics	[61]
	Polymeric nanoparticles	Ceria, triphenylphosphine and ROS-responsive organic polymer (mPEG-TK-PLGA)	Sepsis-induced AKI mice model	Nano-drug delivery system combining mitochondria-targeting ceria nanoparticles with atorvastatin has favourable potentials in the sepsis-induced AKI therapy	[62]
	Lipidic nanoparticles	Cathepsin-B, antimicrobial peptide and vitamin C	Immune-compromised septic mice model	Nanosystem offered elimination of MDR bacteria	[63]
Skin	Nanoemulsion	Alpha-tocopherol and chitosan oleate	Ex-vivo punch tests on human skin biopsies	Nanosystem enhanced cell production in fibroblast and keratinocytes cell medium and found to help treat topical skin infection	[64]
	Nano-scaffolds	Silk fibroin, chitin and silver nanoparticles	In-vitro antibacterial and antifungal activity evaluation	Fabricated nano-scaffolds offered prominent activity against S. aureus, E. coli and C. albicans	[65]
Kidney	Metallic nanoparticles	Iron oxide	In-vivo biodistribution in mice model	Nanoparticles found to be effective against urinary microbes like E. coli	[66]
	Nitric oxide releasing nanoparticles	Chitosan and silane hydrogel	In-vivo mouse infection model	NO-np lead to a reduction in angiogenesis preventing bacterial dissemination from abscesses. NO-np may be useful therapeutics for microbial abscesses	[67]