Fig 1. Flow diagram of our methods for analyzing wolf scats.

Scats were collected in the field (left), and then processed in three ways: (A) wolf DNA was extracted, genotyped based on microsatellites, and sex was identified; (B) cestode DNA was extracted and genotyped to species; and (C) metabolites of fecal glucocorticoids (molecule shown) were quantified, resulting in a measure of stress. Scat analyses were then matched (right) to known collared wolves, who were monitored throughout their lives, or uncollared wolves. Photo credit: Ellen E. Brandell (wolf scat, left), Jort Vanderveen (collared wolf, right).