Table 1.

Summary of Study Characteristics (n = 26) including Design, Population, Setting, Objective, Intervention, Outcome Measures, and Key Findings

SOCIO-SOMATIC INTERVENTIONS
Study	Design	Study Population	Setting	Objective	Intervention	Outcome Measure(s)	Key Findings
Aalbers et al., 2020 (Netherlands) Music Therapy	Single-Group Design: Pre/posttest with 1-month F/U	YA females (N = 15) aged 19–30 (M = 23, SD = 3) with depression symptoms; 50% Dutch and 50% German	College Campus	Reduce depression and improve emotion regulation and positive affect	Emotion-Regulating Improvisational Music Therapy (10 sessions) Active (e.g., group music making and improvision) No comparison	Primary: Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology Secondary: Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS); Bodily and Emotional Perception of Pain questionnaire (affect)	Significant reductions for depression and improvement in emotion regulation at posttest, compared to control condition. These results remained at 4-week F/U
Kim et al., 2018   (South Korea) Nursing	Quasi-Experimental Design: Pre/posttest	Adolescents males (N = 72) with maladjustment and behavioral issues (M age = 15, SD = 2, range NR); Korean identified	School	Increase self-esteem and reduce aggression	Group music therapy (24 sessions) Active (e.g., group music-making) Active comparison	CSEI, Mental Health Questionnaire for Korean Adolescents	Participants reported significant improvements in social, academic, and self-esteem and self-injurious aggression at posttest compared to control group. Verbal, object-related, person-related, and total aggression were found to be NS
Martin et al., 2012 (Australia) Art Therapy	Single-Group Design: Pre/post with 10-week F/U*	YA females (N = 19) aged 16–25 (M = 20; SD NR) with at least 1 episode of NSSI; race/ethnicity NR	College Campus	Reduce the frequency of NSSI and improve emotion regulation, alexithymia, and self-esteem	Voice Movement Therapy (10 sessions) Active (e.g., group singing, rhythmic sound exercises, music-making with percussive instruments, group movement) No comparison	Primary: Self-Injury Questionnaire Secondary: DERS, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE), General Health Questionnaire, Toronto Alexithymia Scale	Significant improvements in emotion regulation, alexithymia, self-esteem, anxiety, somatic symptoms and social dysfunction at posttest and 10-weeks. Changes in depression and self-injury were NS but changes in mean scores suggest small improvements
Porter et al., 2017 (Ireland) Sociology	Experimental Design: Pre/posttest with 3-month F/U	Adolescents (N = 251) aged 8–16 (M/SD NR) with social, emotional, and behavioral issues; 56% female; 97% white	Outpatient MH	Improve social and communication skills and promote positive changes in social functioning, self-esteem, depression and family functioning	Alvin model of ‘Free Improvisation' Music Therapy (12 sessions) Active (e.g., music-making, music listening, group improvisation, body movement, singing) Passive comparison	Primary: Social Skills Improvement System Rating Scales (SSIS) Secondary: RSE, CES-D, Child Behavior Checklist, Family Assessment Device	Participants 13 and over in the intervention group reported improvements in social skills, self-esteem, and depression at week 13, compared to control group. Changes on guardian reported SSIS, family, and social functioning were NS
Rickson & Watkins, 2003 (New Zealand) Music Therapy	Experimental Design: Pre/posttest	Adolescent boys (N = 15) aged 11–15 (M = 13, SD NR) with social, emotional, and behavioral issues; race/ethnicity NR	Residential Setting	Promote prosocial behaviors	Group music therapy: (16 sessions) Hybrid (e.g., music listening, structured rhythmic activities, group songwriting and synchronized singing) Waitlist comparison	Developmental Behavior Checklist; video analysis of sessions	No significant changes across any outcome measures. However, small changes in mean scores suggest that a MT program that aims to promote autonomy and creativity may help adolescents to interact more appropriately with others, but may also lead to a short-term mild increase in disruptive behavior
Rickson, 2006 (New Zealand) Music Therapy	Experimental Design: Pre/during/posttest	Adolescent boys (N = 13) aged 11–16 (M = 13, SD NR) with emotional, behavioral, and mood related disorders; race/ethnicity NR	Residential Setting	Reduce impulsivity behaviors	Instructional music therapy and Improvisational music therapy (16 sessions total) Active (e.g., structured repetitive rhythmic activities with percussion instruments and emotionally themed group improvisation, performance) Waitlist comparison	Conners Global Index Restless-Impulsive Scale; Conners' DSM-IV Hyperactive-Impulsive Scale; Synchronized Tapping Task Session observation forms, daily notes, and video data were used as measurement tools alongside self-reports	Instructional and improvisational MT groups both reported significant increases in self-control of motor tasks along with a reduction in restlessness and impulsivity at posttest (teacher reports). However, the music therapist's measures of restlessness and impulsivity during sessions were NS. While NS, both groups reported lower STT scores during the instructional phase
Shuman et al., 2016 (United States) Psychiatry	Single-Group Design: Pre/posttest	Adolescents (N = 352) aged 12–21 (M = 15, SD = 2) with mood and eating disorders; 88% white; 71% female	Inpatient MH	Promote positive changes in moods	Group music therapy (# of sessions NR) Hybrid (e.g., group music listening and lyric discussions, drum circles, group improvisation with instruments) No comparison	Fast Assessment of Child Emotions	Results indicate the probability of a change in total mood score was high. Of the individual mood items, fatigue and energy changed the most. No significant associations between age, gender, or other specific demographics that were tested, nor changes in individual or total mood scores
Wu, 2002 (Taiwan) Music Therapy	Experimental Design: Pre/posttest with 2-month F/U	YAs (N = 28) aged 19–21 (M and SD NR) with depression, anxiety, and self-esteem challenges; 50% male; Taiwanese identified	College Campus	Reduce anxiety and depression and improve self-esteem	Group music therapy (10 sessions) Passive comparison	Zung's Self-Rating Depression and Anxiety; RSE	Experimental group participants demonstrated reductions in anxiety at posttest and at 2-month F/U. Only depression was found to be reduced at 2-month F/U. Qualitative results suggest positive changes such as more pleasure, relaxation, and confidence, and few negative emotions. Self-esteem was NS

SOCIO-COGNITIVE INTERVENTIONS
Study	Design	Study Population	Setting	Objective	Intervention	Outcome Measure(s)	Key Findings
Bibb et al., 2019 (Australia) Music Therapy	Single-Group Design: Pre/posttest	YA females (N = 13) aged 18–41 (M = 26, SD = 7) with eating disorders; race/ethnicity NR	Outpatient MH	Reduce subjective perception of anxiety	Resource-Oriented Music Therapy (13 sessions) Receptive (e.g., music listening, lyric analysis) No comparison	Subjective Units of Distress Scale (SUDS)	Significant reductions were observed in post-meal anxiety at posttest
Dingle & Fay, 2017 (United States) Music Psychology	Experimental Design: Pre/posttest	YAs (N = 51) aged 16–26 (M = 19, SD = 2); 67% female; race/ethnicity NR	College Campus	Improve emotional awareness and regulation skills, and engagement	Tuned-In: A brief group music psychology intervention (4 sessions) Receptive (e.g., music listening, lyric analysis, guided imagery activities) Waitlist comparison	DERS, Weekly rating of emotions, attendance and satisfaction, Depression Anxiety Stress Scale	Tuned-In participants reported significant improvements in emotional awareness, ability to clearly identify emotional states, ability to access effective emotion regulation strategies, and overall difficulties in emotion regulation at posttest, compared to comparison group. Results suggest attendance was high (98% attendance rate)
Gee et al., 2019 (United Kingdom) Music Psychology	Experimental Design: Pre/posttest	YA females (N = 13) aged 18–31 (M = 21, SD = 4) with anxiety and depression; race/ethnicity NR	College Campus	Reduce anxiety and depression and improve social connection	Blue Notes: A structured and guided songwriting intervention (5 sessions) Active (e.g., structured songwriting activities) Waitlist control	Primary: Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS); Four-Item Measure of Social Identification Secondary: Social Phobia Inventory and UCLA Loneliness Scale	Blue Notes participants reported significantly lower levels of depression and higher social connection from baseline to posttest compared to control group. Other outcome measures were NS
Gold et al., 2017 (Vienna) Music Therapy	Experimental Design: Pre/posttest	Adolescents (N = 89) aged 13–15 (M = 14; SD = 1) identified as at-risk and low-income; 67% female; race/ethnicity NR	School	Reduce unhealthy uses of music and increase potentials for healthy uses; improve depressive symptoms, psychosocial well-being, rumination, and reflection	Group music therapy (8 sessions) Hybrid (e.g., group improvisation, music listening, lyric analysis, playlist creation) Active comparison	Primary: Healthy and Unhealthy Use of Music scale Secondary: Kessler 10 Depression Scale, Mental Health Continuum-Short Form, Rumination- Reflection Questionnaire	No significant differences between GMT and SDML groups across any outcome measures. While NS, participants in both groups demonstrated small improvements in MH at posttest
Henderson, 1983 (United States) Music Therapy	Experimental Design: Pre/posttest	Adolescents (N = 13) with adjustment disorder, mostly low income (M age = 16, SD/range NR); 53% male; race/ethnicity NR	Inpatient MH	Increase self-esteem, awareness of mood, and emotional expression along with social cohesion	Group music therapy (18 sessions) Receptive (e.g., group music listening, expression and identification of body language) Passive comparison	CSEI, sociograms, adjective checklist of emotions	Significant differences in favor of experimental group on the adjective checklist of emotions, self-esteem, and expression of group feelings. Changes in group cohesion were NS
Levy, 2019 (United States) School Counseling	Single-Group Design: Pre/posttest	Adolescents (N = 12) aged 14–18 (M = 15, SD NR); 75% male; 50% Black, 33% Latinx	School	Improve social and emotional well-being with a focus on coping skills, emotional self-awareness, and self-image	Hip-Hop and Spoken Word Therapy (# of sessions NR) Hybrid (e.g., lyric writing, emotionally themed mixtapes, journaling, hip hop cypher, song recording and performance) No comparison	Stages of Change for Emotional Coping Scale, Emotional Self-Awareness Scale, PSS	Significant positive movement from the preparation stage to an action stage for emotional coping. Changes in perceived stress and emotional self-awareness were NS but changes in mean scores suggest small improvements. Qualitative findings suggest improvements emotional expression, coping, and self-image
Mogro-Wilson & Tredinnick, 2020 (United States) Social Work	Quasi-Experimental Design: Pre/posttest	Adolescents (N = 304) (M age = 14, SD = 1, range NR); 51% female; 74% white	School	Promote the development of social and emotional competencies	Connect with Kids: A classroom based SEL intervention (7 sessions) Receptive (e.g., music listening, lyric analysis, visual arts activities) Passive comparison	Interpersonal Reactivity Index (subscales on perspective taking, fantasy, empathic concern, and personal distress)	Connect with Kids participants demonstrated significant increases in positive social and emotional behaviors of social awareness and empathy, empathetic concern, and perspective taking, compared with participants in the control group
Munson et al., 2021 (United States) Social Work	Experimental Design: Pre/posttest with 3-month F/U	YAs (N = 121) aged 18–34 (M = 26, SD = 4) with SMI and low-income; 66% male; 72% Black and Latinx	Outpatient MH	Improve treatment engagement by targeting cognitive, social, and affective barriers to MH service use	Just Do You: A brief multicomponent meta-intervention (2 sessions) Receptive (e.g., music listening, lyric analysis, group discussions) Passive comparison	Outcome: Yatchmenoff Engagement Scale Mediators: Adult Hope Scale. Study-specific measures for emotional reactions, behavioral beliefs, social norms, image, emotions, & self-efficacy	JDY participants reported higher levels of treatment engagement at 3-months, compared to control group. All hypothesized mechanisms of change were significantly associated with engagement, and (2) JDY itself led to significant positive changes in 4 mechanisms of change including stigma, credibility of providers, trust in providers, perceived benefits of treatment. JDY’s effect on other mechanisms of change were NS
Tyson, 2002 (United States) Social Work	Experimental Design: Pre/post test	Adolescents (N = 11) with behavioral and mental health challenges (M age = 16, SD = 1, range NR); 63% male; 77% Black and Latinx	Residential Setting	Promote therapeutic engagement and improve self-concept and peer relations	Hip-Hop Therapy (HHT) (12 sessions) Receptive (e.g., music listening, lyric analysis, group discussions) Passive comparison	Self-Concept Scale for Children; Index of Peer Relations Scale	HHT participants reported significant improvements in peer relations at posttest, compared to control group. Changes in self-concept were NS but change in mean scores suggest small improvements. Qualitative findings suggest that youth enjoyed the sessions, expressed excitement to return to groups, and increases in self-expression via writing lyrics

HOLISTICALLY-INTEGRATED INTERVENTIONS
Study	Design	Study Population	Setting	Objective	Intervention	Outcome Measure(s)	Key Findings
Currie & Startup, 2012 (study 1) (Australia) Psychology	Quasi-Experimental Design: Pre/posttest with 6-month F/U	Adolescent males (N = 54) aged 12–15 (M = 14, SD = 5) with aggression and behavioral issues; rural and low-income; race/ethnicity NR	School	Reduce trait anger and reactive aggression behaviors and improve self-esteem and reduce depression	Doing Anger Differently (DAD): A structured group percussion therapy program (20 sessions) Active (e.g., structured group percussion and discussions) Waitlist comparison	Trait Anger Scale; Anger-Out scale; school behavior reports, Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), Coopersmith Self Esteem Inventory (CSEI)	DAD participants reported significant reductions in trait anger, aggression-reports, and depression, and increased self-esteem at posttest, compared to control group. Results maintained at 6-months
Currie & Startup, 2012 (study 2) (Australia) Psychology	Experimental Design: Pre/posttest with 6-month F/U	Adolescent males (N = 65) aged 12–15 (M = 14, SD = 1) with records of aggressive behavior; race/ethnicity NR	Outpatient MH	Replication of study 1 with a larger randomized sample in a community treatment setting	DAD: A structured group percussion therapy program (20 sessions) Active (e.g., structured group percussion and discussions) Waitlist comparison	Trait Anger Scale; Anger-Out scale; school behavior reports, BDI, CSEI	DAD participants reported significant reductions in aggression at 6-months, with lower trait anger and anger expression at posttest, compared to control group. Depression and self-esteem were NS
Hendricks, 1999 (United States) Counseling	Experimental Design: Pre/posttest	Adolescents (N = 19) aged 14–15 (M and SD NR) with depression symptoms; 89% female; 79% white	School	Reduce symptoms of depression	Group music therapy (10 sessions) Hybrid (e.g., progressive muscle relaxation, group music listening, drawing activities) Active comparison	BDI	Significant reductions in depression for those in MT group, compared to control group
Hylton et al., 2019 (United States) Creative Arts Therapy	Single-Group Design: Pre/posttest	Adolescents (N = 44) (M age = 15, SD = 1, range NR) with depression, anxiety, and PTSD symptoms; 65% female; 44% white and 41% Latinx	School	Improve mental health of adolescents exposed to school shooting	Creative arts therapy (8 sessions) Hybrid (e.g., group music listening, lyric analysis, songwriting, drumming) No comparison	Patient Health Questionnaire-8; Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7-Item Scale; Child’s Reaction to Traumatic Events Scale; Positive and Negative Affect Schedule	Subgroup analysis by therapeutic activity group indicate no significant changes across any outcome measures for MT group (N = 7). However, when considering entire sample, significant reductions in posttraumatic stress, depression, anxiety and negative affect were observed at posttest
Kõiv et al., 2015 (Estonia) Art Therapy	Quasi-Experimental Design: Pre/posttest	Adolescent females (N = 29) aged 14–17 (M = 16, SD = 1) with emotional and behavioral issues; race/ethnicity NR	Correctional Setting	Increase positive self-concept and self-esteem; support emotional expression and regulation skills, promote prosocial skill development	Integrated Arts Therapy (10 sessions) Hybrid (e.g., group music listening, music-making, song recording, drama, storytelling) Passive comparison	Strengths & Difficulties Questionnaire and Modified Behavior Checklist	Participants in experimental group reported significant increases in prosocial behaviors, decreases in aggression, and decreases in emotional symptoms, compared to control group. Hyperactivity and peer problems were found to be NS
Kwok et al., 2018 (China) Social Work	Experimental Design: Pre/posttest	Adolescents (N = 106) with anxiety symptoms (M age = 14, SD = 1, range NR); 70% male; Chinese identified	School	Increase hope and emotional competence in effort to reduce anxiety and increase happiness	Resource-Oriented Music Therapy with positive psychology (8 sessions) Hybrid (e.g., music-making, music listening, lyric writing, guided imagery, performance) Passive comparison group	Outcome: HADS, Subjective Happiness Scale Mediators: Wong & Law Emotional Competence Scale, Children's Hope Scale	Participants in experimental group reported significant increases in hope, emotional competence, subjective happiness, and decreases in anxiety at posttest compared to control group. Hope was a significant mediator between the intervention and decreases in anxiety and increase in happiness. Paths from emotional competence to anxiety and happiness were NS
Levy & Travis, 2020 (United States) School Counseling	Quasi-Experimental Design: Pre/posttest	Adolescents (N = 18) with elevated levels of stress between the ages 14–17 (M and SD NR); 56% Latinx and 17% Black; 56% male	College Campus	Promote social and emotional well-being and reduce stress, anxiety, and depression	Blended intervention: 1) Critical Cycle of Mixtape Creation and 2) Hip Hop and Empowerment (3 group structures—5 sessions) Hybrid (e.g., music listening, lyric analysis, songwriting, hip hop cypher, song recording) Active comparison	Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), Abbreviated Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI)	Significant decreases for both perceived stress and depression, but not for anxiety across the entire sample. Participants in the semi-structured group reported greatest reductions in perceived stress, compared to the other 2 leadership styles at posttest
Martin et al., 2017 (Australia) Psychology	Single-Group Design: Pre/posttest	Adolescents (N = 41) (M age = 14, SD = 1, range NR) at risk for MH issues; 58% female; 17% Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander	School	Improve mental wellbeing and reduce distress, PTS symptoms, and antisocial behavior	DRUMBEAT: A group-based multicomponent intervention (10 sessions) Active (e.g., group drumming, role play, group discussions, problem solving, relationship building) No comparison	Warwick–Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing, Kessler-5, PTSD checklist, Self-Reported Delinquency	Significant positive changes in mental wellbeing, PTS symptoms, and antisocial behavior observed for boys at posttest. These changes were NS for girls. Psychological distress outcomes were NS across gender
Travis et al., 2019b (United States) Social Work	Quasi-Experimental Design: Pre/posttest	Adolescents (N = 35) aged 11–15 (M = 13, SD = 1) with elevated anxiety and depression; 79% Black; 57% female	School	Promote positive youth development and reduce depression and anxiety	Blended intervention using Hip Hop and Empowerment and Therapeutic Beat Making (# of sessions NR) Hybrid (e.g., music listening, lyric analysis, therapeutic beat making, songwriting) Passive comparison	BSI, Empowerment-based Positive Youth Development Scale (EMPYD)	Intervention participants reported significant improvements for character (EMPYD), depression, and anxiety at posttest, compared to control group

Note: Amount of detailed information provided for intervention components differed by study (e.g., race/ethnicity, age range, SD). F/U = follow up. *Intended to have a control group but analyzed as single-group design due to logistical constraints. NR = not reported; YA = young adult; NSSI = non-suicidal self-injury. Not all studies distinguished between primary vs. secondary outcomes