Table 2.
The characteristics of included studies.
| First author | Year | Sample size | Country | Mean age | Target group | Prevalence (%) | Date of data collection | Self-medication agent | Findings | Quality |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Alsaad (7) | 2022 | 1,226 | Saudi Arabia | – | General population | 59 | January to February 2021 | – | The highest prevalence of SM was in women, workers in health departments—excluding physicians and pharmacists- and people with chronic diseases. | High |
| Kashyap (13) | 2022 | 326 | India | – | Medical students | 29.8 | – | Supplementary medicines | About one-third of the participants stated they self-medicated to prevent or treat COVID-19. Also, the most common reason for SM was easy to access. | High |
| Malik (14) | 2022 | 451 | Pakistan | – | Dental patients | 86.2 | September to December 2020 | Pain relievers and Antibiotics | The most common causes of SM were toothache (56.8%), and tooth sensitivity (37.5%). | Moderate |
| Likhar (15) | 2022 | 394 | India | – | Medical students | 73.8 | – | – | The main reason for SM was convenience (23.09%) and the intention of getting quick relief (21.06%). | Moderate |
| Aitafo (6) | 2022 | 220 | Nigeria | – | HCWs | 15.9 | January to March 2022 | Vitamin C, Zinc, Azithromycin, and anti-malarial | The main reason for SM was the fear of getting infected following contact with suspected or confirmed cases of COVID-19 | High |
| Alavi Namvar (16) | 2022 | 306 | Iran | 34.9 | Dental patients | 53.9 | October 2020 and April 2021 | Ibuprofen; Acetaminophen; Novafen; Mefenamic acid; Amoxicillin; Metronidazole; Penicillin; and Salt and water mouthwash | Low education level was associated with SM. The most common problem for SM was toothache. | Moderate |
| Barakat (17) | 2022 | 245 | Egypt | – | General population | 38 | – | – | The most predictors of SM were internet use for getting medical information (OR = 2.1, p = 0.02), lack of health education about COVID-19 (OR = 2.1, p = 0.03), and younger age (OR = 0.9, p = 0.03). | Moderate |
| Yasmin (18) | 2022 | 489 | Pakistan | – | Medical students | 83 | January to February 2021 | Paracetamol and multivitamins | Most SM was reported in women, third-year medical students and people in good self-reported health. | High |
| Acharya (3) | 2022 | 383 | USA | – | Medical students and staff | 50.4 | November 2021 | Paracetamol, Vitamin C; Zinc; Multivitamins; Vitamin D; Azithromycin; Cough syrup; and Ibuprofen | More than half of the participants purchased the medicines directly from the pharmacy. | Moderate |
| Alateeq (19) | 2022 | 443 | Saudi Arabia | 37.56 | General population | 44 | July to August 2021 | Dietary Supplements | The predictors of dietary supplement use were insomnia and a history of mental health disorder diagnosis. | High |
| Amuzie (20) | 2022 | 469 | Nigeria | 39.9 ± 13.5 | General population | 30.3 | October to November 2021 | Herbal products; Antimalarial; Vitamin Supplements; Azithromycin; Ivermectin; Analgesics; Calcium Supplements; Hydroxychloroquine; Ciprofloxacin | Older age (AOR = 1.87), primary education (AOR = 2.15) and perception of cost (AOR = 2.29) were predictors of self-medication. | High |
| Bello (21) | 2022 | 356 | Nigeria | 20.34 | Students | 65.4 | May to August 2020 | Paracetamol; Tramadol; Cold syrup; Vitamin C; Herbs; Anti-Malaria; Anti-Diarrhea; Piriton; Slimming Pills and Teas; Food Supplements; and Hydroxychloroquin | Experience of COVID-19 symptoms significantly predicted SM. The prevalence of SM was not significantly different between male and female undergraduate students. | High |
| Gaviria-Mendoza (22) | 2022 | 397 | Columbia | 31 | General population | 34.3 | June to September 2020 | Acetaminophen; Antihistamines; Vitamins; and Antibiotics | The reasons for SM to prevent COVID-19 were: distrust of personnel and health centers (OR = 10.4; p = 0.013) and fear of being fined for leaving home (OR = 7.29; p = 0.026). | Moderate |
| Dehghan (23) | 2022 | 782 | Iran | – | General population | 84 | April to August 2021 | Nutritional supplements | SM was associated with sex, having children, place of residence, and COVID-19 status. | High |
| Gerbier (24) | 2022 | 5,210 | European countries | – | Pregnant and Postpartum Women | 41.4 | June to August 2021 | Paracetamol; Cetirizine; Omeprazole; Acetylsalicylic acid; Lactulose; Metoclopramide; Salbutamol; Levothyroxine sodium; and Antibiotics | Analgesics were the most commonly used drugs. Antihistamines and drugs for gastric-related disorders were the most commonly used drugs. Also, NSAIDs and antihistamines were the most commonly used drugs in women. | High |
| González-González (25) | 2022 | 284 | Mexico | – | University Students | 26 | 2020 | Herbal; Medicinal Drugs; Vitamins; and Chlorine dioxide | About 20% of the participants had self-medicated to prevent COVID-19. The prevalence of SM did not differ between men and women. | Moderate |
| Gupta (26) | 2022 | 170 | India | 38.6 ± 10.7 | Students | 57.7 | August 2020 | pain suppression; Antibiotics and anti-acid medications | Students with less educated tend to SM more than those with higher education (OR = 2.200, 95% CI = 1.116–4.336). | Moderate |
| Heemskerk (27) | 2022 | 361 | France | – | General population | 34.6 | November 2020 and January 2021 | Vitamins; herbal or home remedies | A third of the participants had used SM to protect themselves against COVID-19 and boost their immune systems. Women were more likely than men to use over-the-counter medications, vitamins, and herbal/home remedies to protect themselves from COVID-19. | Moderate |
| Joseph (28) | 2022 | 225 | India | 34.5 ± 15.2 | General population | 34.2 | August 2021 | Paracetamol | The most common symptom for which SM was performed was a cold, and the most common drug used was paracetamol. Participants with a history of self-medication among family members, relatives, or friends were more likely to self-medicate. The idea that SM is harmful was more in women than in men. | High |
| Kumari (29) | 2022 | 57 | India | 46.3± 8.8 | Faculty employed | 50.8 | – | Analgesics; Vitamins; Antibiotics; and Anti-allergic drugs | The most common reason for SM was that it was less costly. Doctors at work were the most common source of information. The most common symptom that caused SM was pain. The most common drug used was analgesics. | Moderate |
| Mahmoudi (30) | 2022 | 450 | Iran | – | COVID-19 patients | 56.1 | March to October 2020 | Not reported | Not reported | Moderate |
| Odis (31) | 2022 | 402 | Nigeria | – | Outpatients | 71.9 | February 2021 | Acetaminophen; Ibuprofen; Azithromycin; Penicillin; Antiretrovirals; and hydroxychloroquine | Older people used antiretroviral drugs more than other age groups. | Moderate |
| Okoye (32) | 2022 | 669 | Nigeria | 35.6 ± 8.7 | HCWs | 36.3 | March and April 2021 | Ivermectin; Azithromycin; Vitamin C; Chloroquine; and zinc | Factors associated with self-medication were: older age, being a pharmacist, higher income, and previous COVID-19 test. Age > 44 years (AOR = 2.77) and previous COVID-19 test (AOR = 2.68) were predictors of SM. | High |
| Rojas-Miliano (33) | 2022 | 166 | Peru | – | Students | 14.5 | October to November 2020 | Paracetamol; Aspirin; and Influenza drugs | SM was associated with the perception that SM is harmful to health (PR = 0.41; 95% CI = 0.20–0.84) and having a doctor as a source of medication information (PR = 0.46; CI = 0.21–0.99). | High |
| Toure (34) | 2022 | 975 | Guinea | – | Health centers staff | 14.1 | June 2021 | Not reported | Fatigue (OR = 2.11), sore throat (OR = 1.89), loss of smell (OR = 4.64), and sore throat of a close person (OR = 2.32) were independently associated with SM. | Moderate |
| Vasquez-Elera (35) | 2022 | 301 | Peru | 58.6 ± 16.4 | COVID-19 patients | 54.8 | May to June 2020 | Vermectin; Azithromycin; Corticosteroids; and NSAIDs | The frequency of SM in people between 30 and 59 years old was 2.53 times higher than in people between 18 and 29 years old. Also, male gender, dyslipidemia, smoking, and hepatic steatosis were related to SM. | Moderate |
| Zeng (36) | 2021 | 70 | China | – | COVID-19 patients | 31.4 | January to February 2020 | Traditional Chinese medicine; Acetaminophen Levofloxacin; Antivirals; and Antibiotics | Not reported | Moderate |
| Saleem (37) | 2021 | 520 | Saudi Arabia | 21.8 ± 1.9 | Students | 58 | March to June 2020 | Analgesics; Antibiotics; Antipyretics; Antihistamines; Antidiarrheal, Antiemetic; Antacid; Laxatives; Food supplements; and Vitamins | The most reasons for SM were: symptoms are minor, experience, saving time, pharmacist advice, and saving money. | High |
| Sadio (1) | 2021 | 955 | Togo | – | General population | 34.2 | April to May 2020 | Vitamin C and traditional medicine | Female sex (AOR = 1.90), work in the health sector (AOR = 1.89), secondary education level (AOR = 2.28), and university education level (AOR = 5.11) were associated with SM. | High |
| Ruiz-Padilla (38) | 2021 | 16,724 | Mexico | – | General population | 35.3 | March to November 2020 | Aspirin; Ibuprofen; Dexamethasone; Azithromycin, Ivermectin; Hydroxychloroquine; and Chloroquine | The factors associated with SM were age (18–25 years), female gender, low education level, low socioeconomic status, being married, unemployment, and the presence of comorbidity. | High |
| Mota (39) | 2021 | 710 | Brazil | – | HCWs | 60.3 | May to July 2020 | Insomnia medication | About two-thirds of the total sample had some sleep-related complaints, 25.8% due to difficulty initiating sleep, 29.6% due to difficulty staying asleep, and 32.5% due to early morning waking. | Moderate |
| Zhang (40) | 2021 | 2,217 | Australia | – | General population | 19.5 | March 2020 | Antibiotics | Age (OR = 0.89), gender (OR = 1.29), and education (OR = 1.13) were associated with antibiotic use for protection against COVID-19. | Moderate |
| Heshmatifar (41) | 2021 | 342 | Iran | 66.2 ± 5.67 | Elderly | 55.5 | – | Analgesics; vitamins; Anti-cold; and Antibiotics | The main factors related to SM were disease prevention, home quarantine, financial problems, previous experience of SM, and others' advice. | Moderate |
| Ainsy Goldlin (42) | 2021 | 323 | India | – | General population | 39.6 | June and July 2020 | Hydroxychloroquine; Azithromycin; Ivermectin; Herbal preparations, Vitamins; and Minerals preparations | The main factors related to SM were COVID-19 spread and mortality, fear of visiting hospitals, time saving, lack of easy access to hospitals, easy availability of drugs in local pharmacies, trust in online information and being familiar with the drugs | Moderate |
| Alonso-Castro (43) | 2021 | 2,100 | Mexico | 32.1± 13.6 | General population | 61.9 | March and June 2020 | Herbs | Female gender, age < 40 years, low education level, being single, unemployment, presence of mental illness, use of psychiatric drugs, and drug use were among the factors related to self-medication. | High |
| Azhar (44) | 2021 | 290 | Pakistan | – | General population | 46.7 | – | Analgesics; Hydroxychloroquinone; Azithromycin; and Ivermectin | The most frequent reason for SM was the unavailability of doctors. | Moderate |
| Chopra (45) | 2021 | 1,100 | India | – | General population | 25 | May 2020 | Hydroxychloroquine; Herbal drugs; Vitamins; Antimicrobials; Antihistamines | SM was more common in women than men and in married people than single people. | Moderate |
| D'arqom (46) | 2021 | 610 | Indonesia | – | Women | 75 | July to December 2020 | Anti-COVID medications; Vitamins; and Herbal Supplements | SM in housewives was related to education, and SM in working women was related to age and family income. | High |
| Faqihi (47) | 2021 | 177 | Saudi Arabia | 20 ± 3 | Nursing students | 87 | December 2019 to February 2020 | Acetaminophen; Ibuprofen; Diclofenac Meloxicam; Aspirin; Azithromycin; Amoxicillin; Doxycycline; Metronidazole; and Ampicillin | The most common self-medication causes were headaches, menstrual pain, and fever. The main reason for self-medication was a lack of time to consult a doctor. | Moderate |
| Mir (48) | 2021 | 168 | India | – | General population | 59.9 | May 2021 | Paracetamol; Azithromycin; Expectorants; Ivermectin; Doxycycline; Corticosteroids; Hydroxychloroquine | Not reported | Moderate |
| Islam (49) | 2021 | 1,002 | Bangladesh | 34.7 ± 13.9 | COVID-19 patients | 24 | September to October 2020 | Not reported | Lower socioeconomic status and persistent symptoms of COVID-19 were associated with SM. The main reasons for SM were: insufficient local medical services, dissatisfaction with local health care services, cost of a consultation with doctors, and lack of time. | Moderate |
| Elayeh (50) | 2021 | 1,179 | Jordan | 32.0 ± 12.5 | General population | 80.4 | March to April 2021 | Antihistamine; Cold preparations; Immune boosters; Omega-3; Propolis; Vitamins; Iron; Zink; Ibuprofen; Paracetamol; Magnesium | Female gender (OR = 1.603), working in the medical field (OR = 1.697), and history of COVID- 19 infection (OR = 2.026) were associated with SM. | High |
| Choudhary (51) | 2021 | 100 | India | 36.94 ± 11.83 | Dermatology patients | 48 | June 2020 | Steroids; Antibiotics; Antifungals; Immunomodulators; Antihistamines; and Dithranol | Fear of infection from healthcare facilities and reduced access to healthcare facilities due to lockdown because of COVID-19 were associated with SM. | Moderate |
| Sen Tunc (52) | 2021 | 389 | Turkey | – | Parents | 70.2 | July to October 2020 | Analgesics; antibiotics; mouthwashes; and herbal medicines | The main reason for SM was difficulty obtaining a dental consultation. | High |
| Sikdar (53) | 2021 | 2,941 | Bangladesh | – | General population | 7.14 | November to December 2020 | Sedatives; Anxiolytics; and Anti-depressant drugs | SM was more in people over 35 years old and men than in other groups. | Moderate |
| Quispe-Cañari (54) | 2021 | 3,792 | Peru | – | General population | 43.8 | May to June 2020 | Vitamin C; Traditional medicines; Chloroquine/Hydroxychloroquine | There was a relationship between age, the region where one lived, and job status with SM. | High |
| Tekeba (55) | 2021 | 416 | Ethiopia | 24.3 ± 5.1 | Pharmacy clients | 73.6 | June 2020 | Painkillers; Antibiotics; Cough syrup; Antacid; and Oral contraceptive | SM was associated with age 18–24 years (AOR = 9.28), and 25–34 years (AOR = 3.54), current single status (AOR = 0.28), government employment (AOR = 0.31), and limited knowledge (AOR = 2.31). | High |
| Tobaiqi (56) | 2021 | 281 | Saudi Arabia | – | General population | 58 | July to September 2020 | Laxatives; Antacid; Eye drops; Vitamins; Herbs; Antibiotics; Analgesics | The most common symptom that caused the use of SM was a headache. Also, the most used drug in SM was painkillers. | Moderate |
| Vinay (57) | 2021 | 39 | India | 39.6 ± 14.1 | Inflammatory Bowel Disease Patients | 17.9 | March to June 2021 | Steroids | Not reported. | Moderate |
| Wegbom (58) | 2021 | 461 | Nigeria | 42.2 ± 10.7 | General population | 41 | June to July 2020 | Hydroxychloroquine; Chloroquine; Erythromycin; Metronidazole; Herbal products; Ciprofloxacin; Vitamins | Male gender (OR = 0.79) and having sufficient knowledge about SM (OR = 0.64) were associated with SM. | High |
| Onchonga (59) | 2020 | 379 | Kenya | – | HCWs | 36.2 | – | Not reported | Physically active participants who worked during the day and were healthy were less likely to self-medicate. | High |
| Heydargoy (60) | 2020 | 168 | Iran | – | General population | 20.8 | – | Antibiotics | Not reported | Moderate |
| Makowska (61) | 2020 | 1013 | Poland | – | General population | 45.6 | June 2020 | Not reported | Not reported | High |
| Mansuri (62) | 2020 | 385 | Saudi Arabia | – | General population | 35.1 | March to April 2020 | Not reported | Not reported | Moderate |
| Nasir (63) | 2020 | 626 | Bangladesh | – | General population | 88.3 | April to May 2020 | Ivermectin; Azithromycin; Montelukast; Calcium supplements; Doxycycline; Hydroxychloroquine | The most important symptoms that caused SM were fever, throat pain, and dry cough. | Moderate |
| de los Angeles (64) | 2020 | 829 | Ecuador | – | General population | 96.2 | – | Eucalyptus; Ginger | Not reported | Moderate |
NSAIDs, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs; OR, odds ratio; AOR, adjusted odds ratio; PR, prevalence ratio; CI, confidence interval.