Table 2.
Mechanisms involved and pharmacological outcomes from various antimicrobial investigations on alkannin/shikonin and its derivatives.
| Shikonin and its derivatives | Cells/Targeted strains | Mechanism involved | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Shikonin | Human lung epithelial cells (A549) Murine model of endonasal pulmonary infection; Streptococcus pneumoniae strain D39 serotype 2 (NCTC 7466) |
Antagonistic effect on haemolytic activity of pneumolysin (PLY); Reduce the cytotoxicity of PLY by inhibiting oligomers formation and blocking pore formation on the cell membrane; Decreased production of IFN-γ and IL-6. |
Zhao et al., 2017 |
| Aspergillus terreus (NCCPF860035) | Upregulation of Mpkc, spm1, protein kinase (Pkc-c), protein kinase (dsk1) serine/threonine-protein kinase and small GTPase ras-1 proteins; Moderate increase in cAMP. |
Shishodia & Shankar, 2020 | |
| SC5314, SN250 strains | Shifting mitochondrial aerobic respiration and promoting endogenous reactive oxygen species augmentation thereby causing DNA damage. | Liao et al., 2016 | |
| Agrobacterium rhizogenes 15834 | − | Boehm, Sommer, Li, & Heide, 2000 | |
| S. aureus ATCC 33591 (MRSA) and S. aureus ATCC 25923 (MSSA) | − | Lee et al., 2015 | |
| Iranian Arnebia euchroma extract |
Trichophyton mentagrophytes (PTCC5054), Microsporum canis (PTCC5069), Trichophyton rubrum (PTCC5143), Candida albicans (PTCC5027), Aspergillus fumigatus (PTCC5009) and Penicillium chrysogenum (PTCC5076) | − | Sabokbar, Tabaraie, Karimi, & Talebi, 2017 |
| Lithospermum erythrorhizon seeds | Bacillus subtilis 613R, Clavibacter michigenensis subsp. nebraskensis CN74-1, Agrobacterium radiobacter K84, Agrobacterium tumefaciens C58, Escherichia coli ESS, Erwinia carotovora ATCC 15713, Pseudomonas aureofaciens, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Pseudomonas syringae B, Ralstonia solanacearum, and Serratia marsecens | − | Brigham, Michaels, & Flores, 1999 |
| Acetylshikoninshikonin, β-sitosterol, β,β-dimethylacryl shikonin and deoxyshikonin from L. erythrorhizon |
Porphyromonas gingivalis (ATCC 33277), Streptococcus mutans (UA 159), Fusobacterium nucleatum (ATCC 25586) and Lactobacillus acidophilus (ATCC 4356) | − | Li, Xu, Zhu, & Wang, 2012 |
| β,β-dimethyl acrylshikonin, isovaleryl shikonin, β-hydroxyiso valerylshikonin and shikonin isovalerate from Arnebia hispidissima (Lehm.) DC. | Escherichia coli (ATCC-5922), Klebsiella pneumonie (ATCC-59008) Eterobacter cloacae (ATCC25924), Bacillus subtilis (ATCC-10031), Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC-25923), Streptococcus pneumoniae (ATCC-10032), Aspergillus niger, Rhizoctonia phaseoli, Aspergillus flavus, Penicillium chrysogenum and Candida albicans | − | Singh & Sharma, 2012 |
| Shikonin | Candida albicans (SC5314) | Increased intracellular ROS and depolarization of mitochondrial membrane potential | Miao et al., 2012 |
| Deoxyalkannin, alkannin, acetylalkannin, Isobutyryl alkannin, β-hydroxyiso valerylalkannin, 2′'-(S)-α-methylbutyryl alkannin, Propionyl alkannin, methyl jasmonate and Teracrylalkannin. | Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923), Escherichia coli (ATCC 25922), Staphylococcus epidermidis (ATCC 12228), Klebsiella pneumoniae (ATCC 13883), Enterobacter cloacae (ATCC 13047), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 227853) Candida albicans (ATCC 10231), Candida tropicalis (ATCC 13801) and Candida glabrata (ATCC 28838). | − | Damianakos et al., 2012 |
| Alkannin, shikonin, acetyl alkannin, acetyl shikonin, β,β-dimethyl acryloyl alkannin isovaleryl alkannin, and R-methylbutyryl alkannin, Cinnamoyl alkannin, 3,4-(methylenedioxy)cinnamoyl alkannin, isobutyryl alkannin from Arnebia euchroma | S. aureus, E. faecalis and MRSA. | − | Shen et al., 2002 |