Figure 11. pH is an eco-evolutionary driver of priority effects in nectar microbes.

(A) Field observations show that nectar yeast and bacteria in individual flowers exhibit alternative stable states, where some flowers are either dominated by bacteria (dark blue), yeast (yellow (ancestral) or red (evolved)) or lack significant microbial growth (gray). (B) Laboratory experiments identify negative priority effects between bacteria (dark blue) and yeast (yellow (ancestral) or red (evolved)) that lead to alternative states; for example, where early arriving bacteria lower the pH of nectar (depicted here in light blue), limiting the growth of later arriving yeast. Experimentally evolved nectar yeast (red) was less affected by bacterial priority effects, supporting pH as the key mechanism by which nectar bacteria inhibit yeast growth. (C) A field experiment shows one functional outcome of bacterial dominance in nectar: low nectar pH decreases nectar consumption by pollinators. Graphics modified from Chappell and Fukami, 2018.