Table 3.
Factors to non-health and health-related risk factors during the early stage of the COVID-19 pandemic
| Internal states | Social connectedness | F3 | |||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| CN | GR | IT | NL | RU | SE | UK | US | CN | GR | IT | NL | RU | SE | UK | US | CN | |
| Intercept | 0.36 | 0.23 | 0.19 | 0.05 | 0.42 | 0.38 | 0.40 | -0.01 | 0.42 | 0.23 | 0.26 | 0.35 | 0.44 | 0.77 | 0.73 | 0.56 | 0.37 |
| Age group | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 |
| 25–34 yrs | 0.04 | 0.11 | 0.17 | 0.14 | 0.13 | 0.07 | 0.13 | 0.18 | -0.07 | 0.09 | 0.13 | 0.06 | 0.09 | -0.15 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.01 |
| 35–44 yrs | 0.15 | 0.30 | 0.38 | 0.33 | 0.29 | 0.27 | 0.27 | 0.30 | 0.05 | 0.26 | 0.19 | 0.07 | 0.21 | -0.06 | -0.01 | 0.08 | 0.14 |
| 45–54 yrs | 0.24 | 0.47 | 0.57 | 0.51 | 0.43 | 0.47 | 0.51 | 0.59 | 0.02 | 0.28 | 0.33 | 0.18 | 0.32 | 0.06 | 0.05 | 0.14 | 0.20 |
| 55–64 yrs | 0.48 | 0.73 | 0.74 | 0.82 | 0.58 | 0.74 | 0.67 | 0.79 | 0.23 | 0.56 | 0.38 | 0.36 | 0.40 | 0.27 | 0.16 | 0.23 | 0.32 |
| 65–75 yrs | 0.44 | 0.87 | 0.78 | 0.90 | 0.61 | 0.89 | 0.80 | 0.87 | 0.25 | 0.63 | 0.43 | 0.41 | 0.56 | 0.43 | 0.33 | 0.26 | 0.33 |
| Sex | 0.53 | 0.071 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | 0.15 | 0.51 | 0.062 | 0.50 | 0.41 | 0.23 | 0.30 | 0.21 | 0.46 | 0.28 |
| Female | -0.02 | -0.10 | -0.19 | -0.10 | -0.14 | -0.14 | -0.10 | -0.04 | -0.02 | 0.11 | -0.02 | -0.02 | 0.03 | -0.03 | 0.03 | -0.02 | -0.03 |
| Education level | < 0.001 | 0.61 | 0.001 | 0.55 | 0.049 | 0.41 | 0.66 | 0.055 | < 0.001 | 0.75 | 0.001 | 0.058 | 0.082 | 0.21 | 0.50 | 0.75 | < 0.001 |
| Middle education | 0.17 | -0.05 | 0.09 | 0.01 | 0.07 | 0.04 | -0.03 | -0.05 | 0.14 | 0.04 | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.06 | 0.04 | -0.03 | -0.02 | 0.14 |
| Low education | 0.13 | -0.10 | 0.16 | -0.03 | 0.16 | 0.01 | -0.02 | -0.12 | 0.14 | 0.08 | 0.18 | 0.09 | 0.10 | -0.04 | 0.02 | -0.03 | 0.09 |
| Occupation status | < 0.001 | 0.60 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | 0.005 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 |
| Student | -0.17 | -0.11 | 0.00 | -0.10 | -0.23 | -0.09 | -0.15 | -0.05 | -0.35 | -0.28 | -0.03 | -0.28 | -0.17 | -0.25 | -0.15 | -0.16 | -0.30 |
| Unemployed | -0.27 | -0.09 | -0.19 | -0.26 | -0.17 | -0.27 | -0.25 | -0.20 | -0.48 | -0.16 | -0.25 | -0.31 | -0.22 | -0.33 | -0.25 | -0.30 | -0.44 |
| Retired | -0.03 | -0.06 | 0.15 | -0.03 | 0.15 | -0.06 | 0.05 | 0.04 | -0.15 | -0.17 | 0.10 | 0.01 | 0.04 | -0.18 | 0.00 | -0.01 | 0.02 |
| Unable to work | -0.76 | -0.19 | -0.37 | -0.32 | -0.43 | -0.35 | -0.41 | -0.13 | -1.40 | -0.61 | -0.83 | -0.41 | -0.54 | -0.52 | -0.49 | -0.33 | -1.18 |
| Household income | 0.011 | 0.49 | 0.056 | 0.007 | 0.33 | 0.023 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | 0.006 | 0.62 | 0.43 | 0.17 | 0.088 | 0.026 | < 0.001 | 0.41 | < 0.001 |
| Middle income | 0.06 | -0.05 | 0.04 | 0.05 | -0.05 | -0.07 | -0.18 | 0.09 | 0.03 | -0.03 | -0.02 | -0.01 | -0.07 | -0.11 | -0.21 | -0.04 | -0.03 |
| Low income | -0.06 | 0.03 | -0.02 | 0.04 | -0.10 | -0.14 | -0.22 | 0.17 | -0.07 | 0.07 | 0.02 | -0.03 | -0.15 | -0.06 | -0.33 | -0.01 | -0.15 |
| Unwilling to tell | -0.04 | 0.08 | 0.12 | 0.16 | -0.09 | -0.01 | -0.07 | 0.23 | -0.17 | 0.03 | 0.06 | 0.07 | -0.07 | -0.07 | -0.13 | 0.04 | -0.17 |
| Chronic conditions | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 |
| 1 dis | -0.52 | -0.47 | -0.32 | -0.32 | -0.34 | -0.40 | -0.37 | -0.33 | -0.45 | -0.42 | -0.32 | -0.26 | -0.25 | -0.39 | -0.28 | -0.28 | -0.47 |
| 2 dis | -0.91 | -0.66 | -0.64 | -0.59 | -0.65 | -0.58 | -0.59 | -0.59 | -0.59 | -0.75 | -0.45 | -0.47 | -0.49 | -0.51 | -0.53 | -0.58 | -0.80 |
| 3 or more | -1.38 | -1.48 | -1.02 | -0.82 | -1.09 | -0.93 | -0.98 | -1.00 | -0.97 | -1.16 | -0.83 | -0.62 | -0.77 | -0.83 | -0.75 | -0.78 | -1.23 |
| Self-perception of risk to COVID-19 | < 0.001 | 0.005 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | 0.30 | 0.084 | 0.19 | < 0.001 | 0.66 | 0.41 | 0.33 | < 0.001 |
| Yes | -0.33 | -0.16 | -0.20 | -0.14 | -0.17 | -0.15 | -0.12 | -0.24 | -0.12 | -0.06 | -0.06 | -0.05 | -0.12 | -0.01 | -0.03 | -0.03 | -0.20 |
| Living situation | 0.88 | 0.033 | 0.053 | 0.017 | < 0.001 | 0.15 | < 0.001 | 0.11 | 0.001 | 0.086 | 0.015 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | 0.002 | 0.003 | 0.11 |
| Living alone with children | 0.08 | 0.18 | -0.12 | -0.05 | 0.16 | -0.06 | -0.11 | 0.03 | 0.17 | 0.13 | 0.12 | 0.14 | 0.17 | 0.12 | 0.06 | 0.15 | 0.05 |
| Living with other adults | 0.00 | 0.21 | 0.06 | 0.10 | 0.18 | 0.04 | 0.11 | 0.09 | 0.01 | 0.13 | 0.13 | 0.17 | 0.17 | 0.13 | 0.10 | 0.11 | 0.02 |
| Living with other adults and children | 0.01 | 0.18 | 0.01 | 0.07 | 0.24 | -0.02 | 0.07 | 0.08 | 0.12 | 0.21 | 0.16 | 0.18 | 0.29 | 0.16 | 0.17 | 0.15 | 0.09 |
| Other | 0.07 | -0.17 | -0.03 | -0.05 | 0.19 | 0.15 | 0.16 | 0.12 | -0.10 | -0.13 | -0.04 | 0.06 | 0.12 | 0.26 | 0.14 | 0.04 | -0.05 |
| Feeling protected against COVID-19 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 |
| Well | -0.29 | -0.17 | -0.05 | 0.00 | -0.13 | 0.00 | -0.12 | 0.06 | -0.33 | -0.25 | -0.13 | -0.15 | -0.22 | -0.16 | -0.20 | -0.20 | -0.26 |
| Reasonably | -0.56 | -0.48 | -0.20 | -0.20 | -0.37 | -0.23 | -0.36 | -0.12 | -0.69 | -0.55 | -0.24 | -0.40 | -0.49 | -0.43 | -0.48 | -0.47 | -0.57 |
| Insufficiently | -0.97 | -0.72 | -0.54 | -0.42 | -0.68 | -0.50 | -0.87 | -0.59 | -0.83 | -0.73 | -0.56 | -0.56 | -0.67 | -0.62 | -0.80 | -0.82 | -0.78 |
| Experience with access to healthcare | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 |
| Good/Usually good | -0.28 | -0.12 | -0.25 | -0.15 | -0.20 | -0.09 | -0.11 | -0.17 | -0.29 | -0.12 | -0.27 | -0.21 | -0.21 | -0.18 | -0.17 | -0.27 | -0.24 |
| Fair/Sometimes good | -0.53 | -0.28 | -0.48 | -0.56 | -0.23 | -0.24 | -0.31 | -0.39 | -0.62 | -0.39 | -0.48 | -0.55 | -0.27 | -0.35 | -0.43 | -0.43 | -0.54 |
| Bad/Usually not good | -0.53 | -0.37 | -0.68 | -0.56 | -0.49 | -0.51 | -0.48 | -0.73 | -0.70 | -0.35 | -0.71 | -0.61 | -0.46 | -0.51 | -0.57 | -0.76 | -0.49 |
| Very bad/Never good | -1.13 | -0.60 | -0.92 | -0.78 | -0.66 | -0.48 | -0.40 | -0.95 | -1.34 | -0.54 | -0.99 | -0.60 | -0.58 | -0.61 | -0.66 | -1.03 | -1.68 |
Note: F3 represents objective social participation. Reference group was age 18–25 yrs., male, high-educated, employed, had high income, no chronic conditions, no perceived risk to COVID-19, living alone, was feeling very well protected against COVID-19 and had very good/always good experience on access to healthcare