Table 3. Drugs for treating COVID-19 identified in registered clinical trials.

Drugs	Number of trials	Remarks	Drug category
Thalidomide	2	Thalidomide has immune regulatory effects.14 Formula: C13H10N2O4	Anti-inflammatory
Naproxen	1	Used to treat pain and inflammatory diseases. Formula: C14H14O3	Anti-inflammatory
Ibuprofen	1	Used to treat pain, fever, and inflammation. Formula: C13H18O2	Anti-inflammatory
Escin	1	Used for treatment of chronic venous insufficiency. Formula: C55H86O24	Anti-inflammatory
Piclidenoson	1	Used for autoimmune-inflammatory disorders. Formula: C₁₈H₁₉IN₆O₄	Anti-inflammatory
Colchicine	4	Colchicine lessens the building up of uric acid crystals. Formula: C22H25NO6	Anti-inflammatory
CD24Fc	1	This is a biological immunomodulator. It addresses the major challenges associated with COVID-19.14	Anti-inflammatory
Aspirin	1	Used to reduce pain, fever, or inflammation. Formula: C₉H₈O₄	Anti-inflammatory
Hydrocortisone	1	Used as a replacement treatment for people whose adrenal glands are not producing enough natural cortisol.14 Formula: C21H30O5	Anti-inflammatory
ACE inhibitor	2	ACE inhibitors are used primarily for treatment of high blood pressure and heart failure.	Anti-inflammatory
Hyperbaric oxygen	1	Shows beneficial effects in various inflammatory diseases.14	Anti-inflammatory
Nitric oxide	5	This stimulates the release of certain hormones, such as insulin and human growth hormone.	Anti-inflammatory
N-acetylcysteine + Fuzheng Huayu tablet	1	N-acetylcysteine is a part of basic treatment. Fuzheng Huayu tablets have been proved effective in inhibiting MMP activity, to protect the subepithelial basement membrane.14	Anti-inflammatory
N-acetylcysteine + Placebo	1	N-acetylcysteine is a part of basic treatment. Placebo is used in clinical trials to test the effectiveness of treatments.	Anti-inflammatory
NORS (nitric oxide releasing solution)	1	NORS has the potential to decontaminate the upper respiratory tract.14	Anti-inflammatory
Lopinavir/ritonavir tablets combined with Xiyanping injection	1	Lopinavir/ritonavir is a promising candidate for both COVID-19 treatment and PEP.14 Xiyanping injection has anti-inflammatory and immune regulatory effects.	Anti-inflammatory
Darunavir	1	Used to treat and prevent HIV/AIDS. Formula: C27H37N3O7S	Antiretroviral
Immunoglobulin of cured patients	1	This acts as a critical part of the immune response by specifically recognizing and binding to antigens.14	Antiretroviral
Emtricitabine/tenofovir disoproxil	1	Used to treat HIV with a combination of two antiretroviral medications: tenofovir disoproxil and emtricitabine.	Antiretroviral
ASC09/ritonavir group	1	These are antiretroviral medications. A combination of them has been used for SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia.14	Antiretroviral
Ritonavir + oseltamivir	1	Ritonavir is used to treat HIV. This combination has been used for SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia.14	Antiretroviral
Lopinavir/ritonavir	15	Lopinavir has been used against HIV infections as a fixed-dose combination with another protease inhibitor, ritonavir. Formula: C37H48N6O5S2	Antiviral
Arbidol	2	Arbidol is pharmacodynamic in vitro against coronaviruses. Formula: C22H25BrN2O3S	Antiviral
Favipiravir	3	It has low toxicity (CC50 > 400 µM).22 Formula: C5H4FN3O2	Antiviral
Ribavirin	1	Used to treat hepatitis C and some viral hemorrhagic fevers. Formula: C8H12N4O5	Antiviral
Natural honey	1	Honey as a first-line treatment for acute cough caused by upper respiratory tract infection.14	Antiviral
Favipiravir combined with Tocilizumab	1	Favipiravir is used to treat influenza. Tocilizumab is used to treat rheumatoid arthritis.	Antiviral
Antiviral treatment and prophylaxis	1	The aim is to treat non-severe confirmed cases of COVID-19 and provide chemoprophylaxis for their contacts.14	Antiviral
Remdesivir	7	Nucleotide analog that inserts into viral RNA chains.	Antiviral
DAS181	5	This shows inhibitory activity against seasonal influenza.23	Antiviral
Placebo	39	A placebo is an inert substance or treatment that is designed to have no therapeutic value.	Other treatment/drug
Remdesivir placebo	2	Remdesivir is a nucleotide analog. Placebo is used with this in order to test the effectiveness of treatments.	Antiviral
Oseltamivir	4	This inhibits viral neuraminidase.24 Formula: C16H28N2O4	Antiviral
ASC09F + oseltamivir	1	Oseltamivir reduces the spread in the respiratory tract.24 ASC09F has been combined with oseltamivir to evaluate efficacy in relation to SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia.14	Antiviral
Combination of protease inhibitors, oseltamivir, favipiravir, and chloroquine	1	Used for antiviral treatment, orally. They are intended to have a systemic effect, reaching different parts of the body.	Antiviral
Arbidol hydrochloride	2	Used to prevent severe pneumonia and cytokine dysregulation induced by influenza viruses. Formula: C22H26BrClN2O3S	Antiviral and anti-inflammatory
Lopinavir/ritonavir + hydroxychloroquine	2	Lopinavir/ritonavir is a promising candidate for COVID-19 treatment.14 Hydroxychloroquine is used to prevent malaria in areas where malaria remains sensitive to chloroquine.	Antiviral and anti-inflammatory
Plaquenil	1	Used to prevent and treat malaria. Formula: C18H26ClN3O	Antimalarial
Chloroquine analog (GNS651)	1	This has been tested in patients with advanced or metastatic cancer who have SARS-CoV-2 infection that is not eligible for a resuscitation unit.14	Antimalarial and anti-inflammatory
Hydroxychloroquine + azithromycin	2	These are antiviral plus anti-inflammatory and are used for improving the efficacy of eradication of COVID-19 virus.25	Antiviral and anti-inflammatory
Hydroxychloroquine	38	Hydroxychloroquine is a drug that has been used to improve the clinical outcome from COVID-19.25 Formula: C18H26ClN3O	Antimalarial and anti-inflammatory
Chloroquine	4	Chloroquine is a medication primarily used to treat malaria in areas where malaria remains sensitive to its effects. Formula: C18H26ClN3	Antimalarial and anti-inflammatory
Chloroquine phosphate	4	Chloroquine phosphate is the phosphate salt of chloroquine with antimalarial and anti-inflammatory properties. Formula: C18H32ClN3O8P2	Antimalarial and anti-inflammatory
Hydroxychloroquine sulfate	9	Hydroxychloroquine sulfate works by reducing inflammation in people with autoimmune diseases.	Antimalarial and anti-inflammatory
Siltuximab	2	Siltuximab is a chimeric monoclonal antibody. Formula: C6450H9932N1688O2016S50	Antibody
Meplazumab for injection	1	This has the potential to mediate both treatment and prophylaxis of falciparum malaria.14	Antibody
Bevacizumab	2	This is an anti-VEGF recombinant monoclonal antibody. Formula: C6638H10160N1720O2108S44	Antibody
Nivolumab	1	This works as a checkpoint inhibitor.	Antibody
γ-globulin	1	A major class of immunoglobulins found in the blood.	Antibody
Mavrilimumab	1	Used to treat rheumatoid arthritis. Formula: C6706H10438N1762O2104S54	Antibody
Sarilumab (Kevzara) SC	1	Used by adult patients who are intolerant to biological or non-biological disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs.26	Antibody
Pembrolizumab (MK-3475)	1	Treatment of recurrent or metastatic cervical cancer. Formula: C6534H10004N1716O2036S46	Antibody
PD-1 blocking antibody + standard treatment	1	PD-1 acts as a negative regulator of T cell function. Monoclonal antibody blocking the activity of PD-1 can successfully reduce tumor load.14	Antibody
Azithromycin	16	Used for treatment of a number of bacterial infections. Formula: C38H72N2O12	Antibiotic
Carrimycin	1	This is effective against mycobacterium tuberculosis.27	Antibiotic
Ceftaroline	1	This is a cephalosporin antibiotic with anti-MRSA activity. Formula: C22H21N8O8PS4	Antibiotic
Macrolide	1	Used to inhibit bacterial protein synthesis.	Antibiotic
Ceftriaxone	1	Used to treat severe or life-threatening bacterial infections. Formula: C18H18N8O7S3	Antibiotic
Moxifloxacin	1	Used to treat bacterial infections of the lungs and stomach. Formula: C21H24FN3O4	Antibiotic
Levofloxacin	1	Used to treat bacterial infections, including pneumonia. Formula: C18H20FN3O4	Antibiotic
Amoxicillin-clavulanate	1	Used for treatment of a number of bacterial infections. Formula: C24H28N4O10S	Antibiotic
Atovaquone/azithromycin	1	Atovaquone is used to treat serious lung infection. Azithromycin is used to treat various bacterial infections.	Antibiotic
Piperacillin-tazobactam	1	The combination has activity against many Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.	Antibiotic and inhibitor
Hydroxychloroquine sulfate + azithromycin	1	Hydroxychloroquine sulfate is an oral antimalarial medicine. Azithromycin is an antibiotic used for treatment of a number of bacterial infections.	Antimalarial and antibiotic
Vitamin C	6	Vitamin C acts as an antioxidant and helps to protect cells from damage caused by free radicals.	Dietary supplement
Vitamin D	3	Vitamin D allows the intestines to stimulate and absorb calcium and reclaim calcium.	Dietary supplement
Zinc	2	Zinc can significantly reduce risk of age-related infectious diseases and macular degeneration.	Dietary supplement
Glucose tablets	1	Used to treat hypoglycemia or low blood sugar.14 Formula: C6H12O6	Dietary supplement
Ascorbic acid	1	Used to treat low levels of vitamin C in people. Formula: C6H8O6	Dietary supplement
Interferon beta-1a	2	Interferon beta-1a is used to treat multiple sclerosis. Formula: C908H1408N246O252S7	Interferon
Interferon beta-1b	1	Used to treat relapsing/remitting multiple sclerosis. Formula: C908H1408N246O253S6	Interferon
Recombinant human interferon α1β	2	Applied in the initial treatment and prevention of SARS and MERS.14	Interferon
Alpha-interferon nebulization	1	This mobilizes the body’s immune system to fight cancer.	Interferon
Peginterferon lambda-1a	1	Pegylated type III interferon with marked anti-HCV activity which is mainly used for treatment of CHB.28	Interferon
Arbidol hydrochloride combined with interferon atomization	1	They are combined to treat SARS-CoV-2 viral pneumonia, so as to provide reliable evidence-based medicine for treating viral pneumonia.14	Antiviral and interferon
Huaier granules	1	Orally bioavailable traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) composed of granules containing an aqueous extract of Trametes robiniophila Murr (Huaier).	Traditional Chinese medicine
T89	1	T89 is a botanical drug for oral use. T89 can provide substantial benefits in the prevention or alleviation of symptoms associated with acute mountain sickness.	Traditional Chinese medicine
TCM	2	Traditional medicine includes various forms of herbal medicine, acupuncture, cupping therapy, gua sha, massage, bonesetter, exercise and dietary therapy.	Traditional Chinese medicine
Yinhu Qingwen granula	2	Yinhu Qingwen granula consists of 11 common nontoxic traditional Chinese medicines and previous vivo antiviral studies showed its activity for inhibition of COVID-19.14	Traditional Chinese medicine and antiviral
Xiyanping injection	1	Xiyanping is a TCM preparation with andrographolide as a principal component; it has significant antibacterial and antiviral effects.29	Traditional Chinese medicine and antiviral
YinHu QingWen decoction	2	This consists of 11 common nontoxic traditional Chinese medicines such as Polygonum cuspidatum, Honeysuckle, Nepeta, Ligustrum lucidum.14	Traditional Chinese medicine and antiviral
PUL-042 inhalation solution	2	This reduces the infection rate and progression to COVID-19 in adults exposed to SARS-COV-2.14	Inhaler
Ciclesonide metered dose inhaler	1	It is used to treat asthma and allergic rhinitis. Formula: C32H44O7	Inhaler
Levamisole pill + budesonide + formoterol inhaler	1	Levamisole can increase lymphocytes.14 Budesonide can suppress the immune reaction locally in the respiratory system.14 Formoterol is a β2 agonist and can open airways.14	Inhaler
Sarilumab	6	Used for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Formula: C6388H9918N1718O1998S44	IL-6 receptor blocker
RoActemra IV	1	This is a first-in-class anti-IL-6 receptor (aIL-6R) therapy. IL-6 plays a key role in activating the inflammatory pathway.	IL-6 receptor blocker
Losartan	5	Losartan is an oral medication mainly used to treat high blood pressure. It may be used alone or in addition to other blood pressure medications.	Angiotensin receptor blockers
Valsartan	1	Valsartan is an oral medication used to treat high blood pressure, heart failure and diabetic kidney disease.14 Formula: C24H29N5O3	Angiotensin II receptor blocker
Anakinra	3	Used to treat rheumatoid arthritis. Formula: C759H1186N208O232S10	Receptor antagonist
Sargramostim	1	Sargramostim is a recombinant granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM CSF). Formula: C639H1006N168O196S8	Biological response modifier
Methylprednisolone	5	Used to suppress the immune system. Formula: C22H30O5	Corticosteroid
Dexamethasone	2	Used to reduce the duration of mechanical ventilation.14 Formula: C22H29FO5	Corticosteroid
Fingolimod	1	This is an effective immunological modulator. Formula: C19H33NO2	Immunomodulator
Clopidogrel	1	Used to reduce the risk of heart disease. Formula: C16H16ClNO2S	Inhibitor
Rivaroxaban	1	Used to treat and prevent blood clots. Formula: C19H18ClN3O5S	Inhibitor
Baricitinib	3	Used for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis in adults. Formula: C16H17N7O2S	Inhibitor
Sildenafil citrate tablets	1	This is an oral therapy for erectile dysfunction. Formula: C22H30N6O4S	Inhibitor
Atorvastatin	1	Used to prevent cardiovascular disease. Formula: C33H35FN2O5	Inhibitor
Omeprazole	1	Used in treating gastroesophageal reflux disease. Formula: C17H19N3O3S	Inhibitor
Ruxolitinib	3	Used to treat myelofibrosis and polycythemia vera. Formula: C17H18N6	Inhibitor
Cobicistat	1	Used to treat human immunodeficiency virus infection. Formula: C40H53N7O5S2	Inhibitor
Camostat mesylate	2	Camostat mesylate can block entry of SARS-CoV-2 into cells. Formula: C20H22N4O5	Inhibitor
Tofacitinib	1	Tofacitinib can mitigate alveolar inflammation.14 Formula: C16H20N6O	Inhibitor
ARB/ACEI	1	Used to treat high blood pressure.	Inhibitor
Angiotensin 1-7	1	Angiotensin 1-7 is a vasodilator agent. Formula: C41H62N12O11	Inhibitor
RhACE2 APN01	1	This is believed to have the potential to inhibit COVID-19 infection and reduce lung injury.	Inhibitor
Nintedanib 150 mg	1	Used for treatment of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Formula: C31H33N5O4	Inhibitor
Calcium channel blockers	1	Used to relax blood vessels and increase the supply of blood and oxygen to the heart.	Antihypertensive
Tranexamic acid	2	Used to treat excessive blood loss from major trauma. Formula: C8H15NO2	Antifibrinolytic
Plasma	2	This helps to distribute heat throughout the body.	Plasma
Hyperimmune plasma	1	This can induce high serum concentrations of antibodies against Gram-negative LPS.30	Plasma
Tocilizumab	13	Used for treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Formula: C6428H9976N1720O2018S42	Other treatment/drug
BLD-2660	1	Used to reduce viral replication.14	Antifibrotic
Telemedicine	1	This allows healthcare professionals to evaluate, diagnose and treat patients using telecommunications technology.	Other treatment/drug
Oxyhydrogen	1	This is an adjuvant therapy for patients infected with COVID-19 pneumonia, for improving the clinical symptoms.14	Other treatment/drug
Best supportive care (BSC) + IFX-1	1	This is a phase II study with two treatment arms. It is used in patients with severe COVID-19 pneumonia.14	Other treatment/drug
Usual practice + Symbicort Rapihaler	1	Interventional patient will be treated with Symbicort Rapihaler, which is inhaled into the lungs to treat asthma.14	Other treatment/drug
Thymosin + standard treatment	1	Thymosin is used to regulate cellular immunity in sepsis patients.14	Other treatment/drug
Oxygen treatment	1	Oxygen treatment delivers oxygen gas for breathing.	Other treatment/drug
Physiological saline solution	1	A sterile solution of sodium chloride that is isotonic to body fluids; used to maintain living tissue temporarily.	Other treatment/drug
Aviptadil via intravenous infusion + maximal intensive care	1	Aviptadil is an analog of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide for treating erectile dysfunction. Maximal intensive care has been used for COVID-19-induced acute respiratory distress syndrome.14	Other treatment/drug
Normal saline infusion + Maximal intensive care	1	Maximal intensive care is defined not to include extracorporeal mechanical oxygenation.14 This combination has been tested in relation to coronavirus infection.14	Other treatment/drug
Discontinuation and continuation of RAS blocker therapy	1	It is crucial to determine whether RAS blockers should be discontinued or not in patients with COVID-19.14	Other treatment/drug
Thiazide or thiazide-like diuretics	1	These are widely used for management of hypertension.	Other treatment/drug
Angiotensin receptor blocker	1	Angiotensin receptor blockers are medications that block the action of angiotensin II and allow arteries and veins to widen.	Other treatment/drug
Thymosin alpha 1	1	This is a peptide fragment derived from prothymosin alpha, a protein that in humans is encoded by the PTMA gene.	Other treatment/drug
Bromhexine 8 mg	1	Used to treat chest congestion and coughing. Formula: C14H20Br2N2	Other treatment/drug
Anluohuaxian	1	Used to block the progression of pulmonary fibrosis and improve lung function in patients with COVID-19.14	Other treatment/drug
Eicosapentaenoic acid gastro-resistant capsules	1	This is a hydrolytic breakdown product of eicosapentaenoyl ethanolamide. Formula: C20H30O2	Other treatment/drug
Tradipitant	1	Used to treat motion sickness and atopic dermatitis. Formula: C28H16ClF6N5O	Other treatment/drug
RoActemra SC	1	This is an anti-human monoclonal antibody of the immunoglobulin G1 (IgG1) subclass.	Other treatment/drug
Defibrotide injection	1	This works by preventing formation of blood clots.	Other treatment/drug
Sterile water for injection	1	This preparation is designed solely for parenteral use, after addition of drugs that require dilution.	Other treatment/drug
Standard treatment/ medical care/ therapy	21	Standard therapy is the medical treatment that is normally provided to people with a given condition.	Other treatment/drug
Intravenous immunoglobulin	1	Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) therapy can improve the prognosis for critically ill patients with SARS-CoV-2.14	Other treatment/drug
Oxygen therapy	1	Oxygen therapy is a treatment that provides supplemental oxygen.	Other treatment/drug
Deferoxamine	2	Used to treat transfusion-related chronic iron overload. Formula: C25H48N6O8	Iron chelator

ACE = angiotensin-converting enzyme; MMP = matrix metallopeptidases; PEP = post-exposure prophylaxis; RSV = respiratory syncytial virus; RNA = ribonucleic acid; VEGF = vascular endothelial growth factor; GM-CSF = granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor; PD-L1 = programmed death-ligand 1; PD-1 = programmed cell death protein 1; MRSA = methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus; HCV = hepatitis C virus; CHB = complete heart block; IL-6 = interleukin 6; RA = rheumatoid arthritis; ARDS = acute respiratory distress syndrome; CYP3A = cytochrome P450 3A; JAK1/3 = Janus kinase 1/3; ARB = angiotensin receptor blocker; ACEI = angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors; RAS = renin-angiotensin system; LPS = lipopolysaccharides; PTMA = prothymosin alpha; SC = subcutaneously; IV = intravenously; CC50 = cytotoxic concentration 50%.