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. 2022 Nov 19;13:7091. doi: 10.1038/s41467-022-33486-4

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — a The configuration of operando pressure measurement. The stack containing a multilayer pouch cell, a metal force-distribution plate, and a pressure sensor (load cell), is clamped onto a mechanically fixed constraint. b Zoomed-in schematic of the graphite anode illustrating that Li-plating induces a higher volume/pressure change than intercalation for the same amount of charge passed. c The average interplanar lattice spacing of graphite at different lithiation stages agrees with the pressure profile of a 70 mAh NMC-graphite multilayer pouch cell. The cell was charged and discharged at 0.2 C under which Li-plating is unlikely to happen. d The differential pressure (dP/dQ) profile of the pouch cell in a full cycle. The red dashed line is the upper bound of dP/dQ during intercalation defining the Li-plating threshold. When Li-plating happens, the dP/dQ curve will penetrate the upper pink region.