Table 2.
Direct effects for the hypothesized model (N = 1256).
| Variables and hypothesized associations | β | 95% lower CI for β | 95% upper CI for β | p |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Handwashing (T1) → Handwashing (T3) | .499 | .439 | .556 | <.001 |
| Total COVID-19 cases (T0) → Handwashing (T1) | .075 | .028 | .121 | .002 |
| Total COVID19 cases (T0) → General anxiety symptoms (T1) | −.003 | −.057 | .050 | .915 |
| Total COVID-19 cases (T0) → Perceived illness severity (T1) | −.065 | −.121 | −.011 | .020 |
| Total COVID-19 cases (T0) → Perceived vulnerability (T1) | −.060 | −.115 | −.007 | .029 |
| Total COVID-19 cases (T0) → Response costs (T1) | −.005 | −.056 | .052 | .887 |
| Total COVID-19 cases (T0) → Response efficacy (T1) | .049 | −.007 | .105 | .083 |
| Total COVID-19 cases (T0) → Self-efficacy (T1) | −.065 | −.115 | −.016 | .007 |
| General anxiety symptoms (T1)→ Handwashing (T1) | .000 | −.047 | .046 | .996 |
| General anxiety symptoms (T1) → Perceived illness severity (T1) | .094 | .038 | .149 | .001 |
| General anxiety symptoms (T1) → Perceived vulnerability (T1) | .088 | .029 | .145 | .003 |
| General anxiety symptoms (T1) → Response costs (T1) | .020 | −.031 | .074 | .463 |
| General anxiety symptoms (T1) → Response efficacy (T1) | −.068 | −.122 | −.012 | .018 |
| General anxiety symptoms (T1) → Self-efficacy (T1) | −.004 | −.052 | .043 | .859 |
| General anxiety symptoms (T1) → Perceived illness severity (T3) | .013 | −.028 | .054 | .540 |
| General anxiety symptoms (T1) → Perceived vulnerability (T3) | .050 | .000 | .097 | .052 |
| General anxiety symptoms (T1) → Response costs (T3) | .058 | .008 | .108 | .022 |
| General anxiety symptoms (T1) → Response efficacy (T3) | −.012 | −.058 | .033 | .617 |
| General anxiety symptoms (T1) → Self-efficacy (T3) | .010 | −.041 | .060 | .703 |
| Perceived illness severity (T1) → Perceived illness severity (T3) | .681 | .644 | .715 | <.001 |
| Perceived vulnerability (T1) → Perceived vulnerability (T3) | .566 | .519 | .609 | <.001 |
| Response costs (T1) → Response costs (T3) | .458 | .403 | .509 | <.001 |
| Response efficacy (T1) → Response efficacy (T3) | .574 | .529 | .618 | <.001 |
| Self-efficacy (T1) → Self-efficacy (T3) | .506 | .451 | .558 | <.001 |
| Intention (T1) → Intention (T3) | .459 | .407 | .512 | <.001 |
| Total COVID-19 cases (T2) → Perceived illness severity (T3) | .017 | −.023 | .056 | .392 |
| Total COVID-19 cases (T2) → Perceived vulnerability (T3) | −.011 | −.053 | .030 | .600 |
| Total COVID-19 cases (T2) → Response costs (T3) | .044 | −.024 | .130 | .228 |
| Total COVID-19 cases (T2) → Response efficacy (T3) | .015 | −.028 | .056 | .473 |
| Total COVID-19 cases (T2) → Self-efficacy (T3) | −.070 | −.123 | −.020 | .006 |
| Perceived illness severity (T3) → Intention (T3) | .039 | −.002 | .080 | .063 |
| Perceived vulnerability (T3) → Intention (T3) | .028 | −.014 | .069 | .203 |
| Response costs (T3) → Intention (T3) | −.080 | −.132 | −.027 | .002 |
| Response efficacy (T3) → Intention (T3) | .063 | .019 | .106 | .006 |
| Self-efficacy (T3) → Intention (T3) | .284 | .224 | .345 | <.001 |
| Intention (T3) → Handwashing (T3) | .343 | .293 | .394 | <.001 |
Note. 95% CI – values of 95% two-tailed bias corrected confidence intervals. Direct effect estimates presented in bold have values of two-tailed bias corrected confidence intervals that do not include zero. T0 = Time 0; T1 = Time 1 (1–7 days later); T2 = Time 2 (one month after T1), T3 = Time 3 (1–7 days after T2); Handwashing = Handwashing Adherence Index (based on the CDC Guidelines); Total COVID-19 Cases = the number of total COVID-19 cases/deaths from the beginning of pandemic per country per date. Data were collected in 14 countries (Australia, Canada, China, France, Gambia, Germany, Israel, Italy, Malaysia, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Singapore, and Switzerland) between March 25, 2020 and September 20, 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic.