Post-9/11 GI Bill (n = 9,776)		VR&E estimates (n = 9,390)		Supported employment (n = 19,217)
Baseline variable	IV model	Naïve model	IV model	Naïve model	IV model	Naïve model
Caregiver approved for PCAFC	0.93 [0.85, 1.05]	0.94 [0.85, 1.03]	0.84 [0.76, 0.92]	0.84 [0.76, 0.93]	1.35 [1.14, 1.53]	1.29 [1.00, 1.67]
Veteran age at PCAFC application
19–30—Reference
31–40	3.72 [2.96, 5.13]	3.52 [2.74, 4.54]	2.45 [1.93, 3.40]	2.41 [1.81, 3.21]	1.92 [1.08, 3.03]	1.98 [1.03, 3.80]
41–50	2.58 [2.12, 3.57]	2.49 [1.94, 3.19]	2.05 [1.60, 2.95]	2.03 [1.53,2.70]	1.39 [0.77, 2.17]	1.44 [0.76, 2.75]
51–54	1.83 [1.50, 2.50]	1.80 [1.41, 2.31]	1.61 [1.20,2.26]	1.60 [1.20, 2.13]	0.93 [0.60,1.52]	0.95 [0.49, 1.84]
Veteran male gender	0.98 [0.81, 1.17]	0.97 [0.83, 1.14]	0.97 [0.83, 1.13]	0.97 [0.82, 1.16]	1.07 [0.86, 1.36]	1.09 [0.74, 1.60]
Veteran married	1.09 [0.99, 1.23]	1.09 [0.99, 1.20]	0.94 [0.83, 1.05]	0.94 [0.84, 1.05]	0.81 [0.68, 1.00]	0.82 [0.64, 1.06]
Caregiver is a Veterana	1.07 [0.96, 1.23]	1.07 [0.94, 1.21]	0.92 [0.79, 1.10]	0.93 [0.79, 1.08]	1.12 [0.79, 1.41]	1.12 [0.79, 1.57]
Veteran homeless in past 12 monthsc	1.06 [0.85, 1.25]	1.05 [0.88, 1.25]	1.03 [0.82, 1.26]	1.03 [0.85, 1.24]	1.85 [1.63, 2.39]	1.78 [1.30, 2.45]
Veteran race
White/unknown	0.78 [0.69, 0.86]	0.79 [0.71, 0.87]	0.69 [0.62, 0.76]	0.70 [0.63, 0.78]	0.54 [0.44, 0.60]	0.54 [0.42, 0.70]
Black/other—Reference
Veteran Hispanic/Latino	1.18 [1.01, 1.34]	1.17 [1.03, 1.33]	1.07 [0.89, 1.24]	1.07 [0.92, 1.24]	0.88 [0.72, 1.28]	0.89 [0.61, 1.29]
Caregiver relationship to Veteran
Spouse/partner	1.01 [0.85, 1.19]	1.01 [0.88, 1.16]	1.04 [0.00, 1.21]	1.04 [0.89, 1.23]	0.80 [0.67, 0.89]	0.84 [0.59, 1.20]
Mother/father	0.69 [0.57, 0.83]	0.71 [0.59,0.86]	0.90 [0.69, 1.09]	0.90 [0.73, l.l1]	1.23 [1.02, 1.48]	1.26 [0.84, 1.89]
Other relationship—Reference
Veteran enrollment priority group
Group 1	1.08 [0.80, 1.46]	1.07 [0.77, 1.48]	1.03 [0.63, 1.48]	1.03 [0.69, 1.55]	0.78 [0.10, 1.02]	0.82 [0.25, 2.63]
Group 2–4	1.16 [0.98, 1.39]	1.14 [0.94, 1.38]	0.96 [0.68, 1.21]	0.97 [0.75, 1.24]	1.00 [0.35, 1.74]	1.06 [0.54, 2.07]
Group 5 or missing—Reference
Veteran service connection
High (≥70%)	0.99 [0.63, 1.49]	0.99 [0.69, 1.44]	0.63 [0.40, 1.06]	0.65 [0.41, 1.03]	0.73 [0.26, 3.97]	0.79 [0.22, 2.86]
Low (< 10% or missing)	1.84 [1.46, 2.34]	1.76 [1.41,2.19]	0.86 [0.64, 1.01]	0.87 [0.67, 1.12]	0.86 [0.29, 1.55]	0.94 [0.49, 1.80]
Medium high (50% to 69%)	0.91 [0.58, 1.33]	0.91 [0.62, 1.35]	0.75 [0.46, 1.18]	0.76 [0.48, 1.21]	1.09 [0.34, 6.39]	1.14 [0.31,4.21]
Medium low (10% to 49%)—Reference
Had a mental health visit in 6 months prior to PCAFC applicationb	0.93 [0.82, 1.03]	0.93 [0.83, 1.04]	1.02 [0.91, 1.13]	1.02 [0.90, 1.16]	2.15 [1.64, 3.75]	2.19 [1.52, 3.17]
Had a primary care visit in 6 months prior to PCAFC applicationb	1.02 [0.93, 1.13]	1.02 [0.92, 1.13]	1.08 [0.98, 1.18]	1.08 [0.96, 1.21]	0.96 [0.74, 1.02]	0.96 [0.74, 1.26]
Diagnosesc
Diabetes	0.85 [0.72, 1.04]	0.86 [0.71, 1.04]	0.81 [0.65, 1.05]	0.82 [0.64, 1.04]	1.59 [1.16, 2.16]	1.57 [1.03, 2.39]
Musculoskeletal disorders/diseases	0.90 [0.81, 1.00]	0.91 [0.83, 1.00]	0.92 [0.84, 1.03]	0.92 [0.83, 1.03]	0.80 [0.63, 0.94]	0.81 [0.63, 1.04]
Alcohol or substance use	1.10 [0.95, 1.22]	1.09 [0.97, 1.22]	0.87 [0.76, 0.98]	0.86 [0.76, 0.99]	1.21 [1.05, 1.58]	1.18 [0.90, 1.54]
Vision loss	0.94 [0.69, 1.24]	0.93 [0.70, 1.25]	1.04 [0.60, 1.38]	1.04 [0.72, 1.50]	0.58 [0.14, 0.79]	0.58 [0.22, 1.57]
Hearing loss	1.10 [1.01, 1.23]	1.09 [0.98, 1.22]	1.09 [0.97, 1.26]	1.09 [0.96, 1.24]	0.68 [0.52, 0.91]	0.68 [0.49, 0.94]
Hyperlipidemia	0.89 [0.82, 0.98]	0.89 [0.80, 1.00]	0.74 [0.63, 0.82]	0.74 [0.64, 0.85]	0.91 [0.75, 1.18]	0.90 [0.67, 1.22]
Hypertension	0.91 [0.80, 1.03]	0.91 [0.81, 1.03]	0.90 [0.76, 1.01]	0.90 [0.78, 1.04]	0.90 [0.71, 1.16]	0.91 [0.67, 1.24]
Obesity	1.09 [0.98, 1.22]	1.09 [0.97, 1.23]	1.02 [0.88, 1.17]	1.01 [0.88, 1.17]	0.94 [0.78, 1.16]	0.94 [0.69, 1.28]
Pain, including back or joint	0.95 [0.88, 1.04]	0.95 [0.87, 1.05]	1.02 [0.92, 1.14]	1.02 [0.92, 1.14]	1.02 [0.85, 1.36]	1.02 [0.80, 1.30]
Traumatic brain injury	1.07 [0.98, 1.18]	1.06 [0.96, 1.17]	1.15 [1.01, 1.27]	1.15 [1.02, 1.29]	1.29 [l.l1, 1.59]	1.29 [1.01, 1.66]
Headache	1.13 [0.98, 1.25]	1.12 [1.01, 1.25]	1.08 [0.97, 1.23]	1.08 [0.95, 1.23]	0.90 [0.76, 1.07]	0.91 [0.68, 1.22]
Joint pain and effusion, not including back pain	1.05 [0.94, 1.16]	1.05 [0.96, 1.15]	0.97 [0.87, 1.05]	0.97 [0.87, 1.08]	0.97 [0.80, 1.16]	0.96 [0.76, 1.22]
Adjustment reaction	1.16 [1.02, 1.35]	1.15 [1.01, 1.31]	1.25 [1.05, 1.43]	1.24 [1.07, 1.43]	1.29 [1.17, 1.60]	1.28 [0.93, 1.74]
Anxiety	1.00 [0.89, l.l1]	1.00 [0.91, l.l1]	0.95 [0.86, 1.10]	0.95 [0.85, 1.07]	1.21 [1.05, 1.59]	1.20 [0.94, 1.53]
Bipolar	0.90 [0.78, 1.08]	0.90 [0.77, 1.05]	0.85 [0.71, 0.98]	0.85 [0.72, 1.02]	1.29 [1.06, 1.60]	1.31 [0.97, 1.77]
Depression	0.94 [0.86, 1.04]	0.94 [0.86, 1.04]	1.03 [0.91, 1.12]	1.03 [0.93, 1.15]	0.93 [0.77, 1.02]	0.93 [0.73, 1.19]
Other mental health	0.81 [0.73,0.90]	0.82 [0.72, 0.93]	1.00 [0.87, 1.20]	1.00 [0.93, 1.15]	1.27 [1.12, 1.53]	1.26 [0.96, 1.67]
Posttraumatic stress disorder	0.98 [0.89, 1.09]	0.99 [0.89, 1.10]	0.89 [0.77, 1.02]	0.90 [0.79, 1.01]	1.03 [0.82, 1.18]	1.05 [0.78, 1.42]
Tobacco use	0.90 [0.82, 1.02]	0.91 [0.81, 1.01]	0.85 [0.75, 0.94]	0.85 [0.75, 0.97]	1.01 [0.75, 1.17]	1.02 [0.78, 1.32]
Chest pain/acute myocardia infarction	0.82 [0.66, 0.99]	0.82 [0.67, 1.00]	0.97 [0.77, 1.19]	0.97 [0.78, 1.21]	1.49 [0.96, 2.12]	1.47 [1.01, 2.14]
Neoplasm	1.00 [0.83, 1.16]	1.00 [0.83, 1.21]	1.10 [0.88, 1.31]	1.09 [0.88, 1.35]	1.29 [1.20, 1.64]	1.29 [0.84, 1.97]
Has non-VA insurance	0.98 [0.85, l.l1]	0.98 [0.87, 1.10]	1.13 [0.97, 1.31]	1.13 [0.98, 1.29]	1.31 [1.19, 1.55]	1.34 [0.99, 1.81]
VA copay exemption
Copay exempt—Reference
Must pay VA copay	1.06 [0.94, 1.22]	1.05 [0.91, 1.20]	1.05 [0.90, 1.00]	1.06 [0.92, 1.22]	1.13 [0.83, 1.20]	1.14 [0.80, 1.63]
VA copay unknown	1.14 [1.02, 1.23]	1.13 [1.02, 1.24]	1.04 [0.92, 1.16]	1.04 [0.92, 1.18]	0.68 [0.58, 0.87]	0.67 [0.48, 0.94]
Lives at least 30 miles from nearest VAMC	0.82 [0.77, 0.91]	0.83 [0.76, 0.90]	0.84 [0.75, 0.93]	0.85 [0.77, 0.94]	0.61 [0.46, 0.84]	0.62 [0.49, 0.78]
Nosos score is greater than 1 VISN	0.84 [0.75, 0.91]	0.84 [0.77, 0.93]	0.88 [0.78, 1.00]	0.88 [0.79, 0.99]	l.l1 [0.92, 1.16]	1.13 [0.88, 1.44]
10	0.86 [0.55, 1.26]	0.88 [0.56, 1.38]	0.64 [0.34, 0.96]	0.65 [0.40, 1.06]	0.36 [0.13, 0.58]	0.36 [0.15, 0.88]
11	0.79 [0.53, 1.22]	0.80 [0.56, 1.15]	0.73 [0.48, 1.01]	0.73 [0.51, 1.07]	0.11 [0.03, 0.15]	0.11 [0.04, 0.32]
12	1.00 [0.64, 1.50]	1.00 [0.69, 1.45]	0.73 [0.47, l.l1]	0.74 [0.50, 1.09]	0.40 [0.26, 0.74]	0.40 [0.20, 0.79]
15	0.89 [0.61, 1.36]	0.90 [0.64, 1.28]	0.53 [0.38, 0.78]	0.54 [0.38, 0.79]	0.44 [0.21, 0.77]	0.42 [0.21, 0.81]
16	1.12 [0.85, 1.59]	1.12 [0.82, 1.55]	0.57 [0.36, 0.78]	0.57 [0.40, 0.80]	0.42 [0.29, 0.66]	0.37 [0.20, 0.67]
17	1.31 [0.98, 1.79]	1.30 [0.96, 1.76]	0.66 [0.48, 0.93]	0.66 [0.48, 0.91]	0.44 [0.31, 0.55]	0.40 [0.23, 0.69]
18	0.84 [0.60, 1.27]	0.85 [0.61, 1.19]	0.88 [0.64, 1.20]	0.89 [0.65, 1.23]	0.30 [0.07, 0.55]	0.30 [0.17, 0.55]
19	1.44 [1.02, 2.17]	1.42 [1.02, 1.98]	0.93 [0.62, 1.31]	0.91 [0.65, 1.29]	1.46 [0.81, 2.24]	1.28 [0.76, 2.16]
2	1.18 [0.75, 1.63]	1.18 [0.77, 1.81]	0.68 [0.40, 1.05]	0.69 [0.41, 1.16]	0.34 [0.16, 0.75]	0.33 [0.10, 0.96]
20	0.83 [0.62, 1.16]	0.84 [0.61, 1.16]	0.64 [0.46, 0.88]	0.64 [0.46, 0.90]	0.37 [0.23, 0.57]	0.36 [0.20, 0.65]
21	1.04 [0.66, 1.40]	1.04 [0.74, 1.47]	0.91 [0.63, 1.28]	0.92 [0.66, 1.28]	0.29 [0.17, 0.37]	0.30 [0.16, 0.57]
22	1.28 [0.95, 1.77]	1.26 [0.92, 1.73]	0.99 [0.75, 1.34]	1.00 [0.73, 1.37]	0.09 [0.05, 0.15]	0.09 [0.04, 0.20]
23	1.23 [0.82, 1.75]	1.23 [0.84, 1.82]	0.72 [0.47, 1.18]	0.73 [0.45, 1.19]	0.85 [0.46, 1.61]	0.82 [0.41, 1.64]
3	1.06 [0.64, 1.54]	1.05 [0.67, 1.64]	1.07 [0.69, 1.49]	1.08 [0.73, 1.60]	0.30 [0.15, 0.32]	0.32 [0.15, 0.69]
4	0.91 [0.59, 1.45]	0.92 [0.62, 1.36]	0.50 [0.29, 0.77]	0.52 [0.32, 0.83]	0.16 [0.08, 0.35]	0.16 [0.06, 0.46]
5	1.25 [0.78, 1.83]	1.25 [0.84, 1.87]	1.03 [0.72, 1.54]	1.04 [0.69, 1.56]	0.26 [0.18, 0.67]	0.26 [0.11, 0.65]
6	1.07 [0.79, 1.46]	1.08 [0.79, 1.46]	0.58 [0.45, 0.78]	0.59 [0.43, 0.80]	0.30 [0.19, 0.47]	0.29 [0.16, 0.52]
7	1.21 [0.99, 1.65]	1.21 [0.89, 1.63]	0.71 [0.51, 0.95]	0.71 [0.52, 0.96]	0.14 [0.06, 0.23]	0.13 [0.07, 0.26]
8	1.16 [0.86, 1.53]	1.17 [0.85, 1.59]	0.78 [0.60, 1.07]	0.79 [0.58, 1.08]	0.41 [0.28, 0.57]	0.39 [0.23, 0.68]
9	0.93 [0.68, 1.34]	0.95 [0.69, 1.30]	0.65 [0.50, 0.86]	0.66 [0.48, 0.90]	0.21 [0.11, 0.33]	0.21 [0.10, 0.41]
Applicant group
Group 1—Reference
Group 2	1.02 [0.87, 1.18]	1.01 [0.89, 1.16]	1.19 [1.00, 1.40]	1.17 [0.98, 1.40]	0.91 [0.78, 1.37]	0.87 [0.60, 1.25]
Group 3	1.16 [0.99, 1.38]	1.15 [1.01, 1.32]	1.26 [1.03, 1.51]	1.23 [1.04, 1.47]	0.94 [0.72, 1.41]	0.87 [0.60, 1.26]
Group 4	1.13 [0.96, 1.34]	1.11 [0.97, 1.28]	1.24 [1.03, 1.53]	1.21 [1.01, 1.43]	1.16 [1.06, 1.68]	1.04 [0.73, 1.49]
Group 5	1.09 [0.91, 1.35]	1.08 [0.92, 1.27]	1.33 [1.03, 1.73]	1.28 [1.05, 1.55]	1.29 [1.07, 1.87]	1.06 [0.70, 1.61]
Residual estimated from first-stage equation	1.00 [0.93, 1.05]	NA	0.99 [0.93, 1.06]	NA	0.92 [0.86, 1.02]	NA

Note. PCAFC = VA Program of Comprehensive Assistance for Family Caregivers; VR&E = vocational rehabilitation and education; VAMC = Veterans Affairs Medical Center; VISN = Veteran Integrated Service Network; VA = U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs. “Post 9/1 l-GI Bill,” “VR&E,” and “Supported Employment” samples are all derived from the same parent sample. Veterans who applied for or used the service prior to or including PCAFC application date are excluded from the respective sample. Veterans remaining in the sample may or may not have applied for/used the service post PCAFC application date, and unique veterans may be present in more than one of the samples depending upon their own histories. Additional exclusions made based upon the constructed instrumental variable (IV).

^aThis variable was constructed based upon caregivers’ social security number matching in the Vital Status Mini File. It may not include caregivers who themselves are Veterans who do not utilize the VA health system (per VA electronic medical records).

^bNumber of visits in the 6 months prior to and including application date. Mental health care was VA provided or purchased; primary care was VA provided.

^cAssessed in the year prior to and including application date.