FIGURE 4.

Therapeutic strategies and clinical applications of B cells in sepsis. Sepsis is characterized by concurrent excessive inflammation and immune suppression, and B cells can act as immunomodulators in the host’s immune response to sepsis. Therefore, strategies targeting B cells are considered promising for the treatment of sepsis including 1) restoration of B cell numbers and function, 2) blocking the effects of secreted cytokines or the selective depletion of pro-inflammatory B cells during systemic inflammation, 3) immune-enhancing therapy targeting B cells during sepsis immunosuppression. Of note, maintaining the balance between the number or function of proinflammatory B cells and Breg cells contributes to the regulatory role of B cells in the sepsis immune response. In addition, B cells can also be used as potential biomarkers for the diagnosis and prognosis in patients with sepsis, but the immunoglobulin therapy based on the antibody production of B cells still needs to be further optimized in clinical practice. Abbreviations: CD, cluster of differentiation; IL-6R, interleukin-6 receptor; PD1, programmed cell death 1; Siglec-G, sialic acid–binding immunoglobulin-type lectin-G; Tfh cell, T follicular helper cell.