Table 3.
Risk of COVID-19 among individuals treated with psychotropic medications by different characteristics compared to nonusers.
| SARS-CoV-2 Infection (N = 3,591) |
COVID-19-Related Death (N = 1,881) |
|||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Users (n/N = 2,542/ 14,284) |
Nonusers (n/N = 28,035/ 153,889) |
OR (95%CI) | P interaction | Users (n/N = 147/ 2542) |
Nonusers (n/N = 1,034/ 28,035) |
OR (95%CI) | P interaction | |
| Age, years | <0.001 | 0.010 | ||||||
| < 65 | 979/4,151 (23.6) | 12,601/47,052 (26.8) | 0.87 (0.80, 0.94) | 12/979 (1.2) | 62/12,601 (0.5) | 0.96 (0.43, 2.01) | ||
| ≥ 65 | 1,563/10,133 (15.4) | 15,434/106,837 (14.4) | 1.04 (0.98, 1.10) | 135/1,563 (8.6) | 972/15,434 (6.3) | 0.76 (0.61, 0.95) | ||
| Sex | 0.387 | 0.485 | ||||||
| Men | 1,716/4,557 (37.7) | 13,637/72,527 (18.8) | 1.01 (0.95, 1.07) | 75/826 (9.1) | 677/13,637 (5.0) | 0.83 (0.63, 1.07) | ||
| Women | 826/9,727 (8.5) | 14,398/81,362 (17.7) | 0.92 (0.86, 0.99) | 72/1,716 (4.2) | 357/14,398 (2.5) | 0.75 (0.54, 0.99) | ||
| Race or ethnicity | 0.354 | 0.887 | ||||||
| White | 2,396/13,669 (17.5) | 25,606/144,656 (17.7) | 1.00 (0.96, 1.06) | 136/2,396 (5.7) | 939/25,606 (3.7) | 0.79 (0.62, 0.99) | ||
| Others | 131/531 (24.7) | 2,291/8,478 (27.0) | 0.79 (0.49, 1.25) | 10/131 (7.6) | 84/2,291 (3.7) | 0.89 (0.37, 2.00) | ||
| Townsend deprivation index | 0.922 | 0.230 | ||||||
| < Median | 982/6,246 (15.7) | 12,763/77,727 (16.4) | 0.99 (0.88, 1.11) | 62/1118 (5.5%) | 423/14,148 (3.0) | 1.04 (0.73, 1.46) | ||
| ≥ Median | 1,554/8,010 (19.4) | 15,236/75,964 (20.1) | 0.99 (0.93, 1.06) | 85/1418 (6.0) | 610/13,851 (4.4) | 0.64 (0.48, 0.85) | ||
| Educational attainment | 0.194 | 0.894 | ||||||
| College degree | 164/1,280 (12.8) | 2,583/18,371 (14.1) | 0.83 (0.70, 0.99) | 10/164 (6.1) | 85/2,583 (3.3) | 0.59 (0.24, 1.34) | ||
| A-level | 70/384 (18.2) | 698/4,569 (15.3) | 1.33 (0.99, 1.78) | 2/70 (2.9) | 23/698 (3.3) | 0.57 (0.08, 2.56) | ||
| O-level | 402/2,389 (16.8) | 4,650/27,904 (16.7) | 1.05 (0.93, 1.18) | 21/402 (5.2) | 126/4,650 (2.7) | 0.89 (0.47, 1.60) | ||
| CSE or equivalent | 250/1,053 (23.7) | 2,650/10,120 (26.2) | 1.04 (0.88, 1.22) | 4/250 (1.6) | 33/2,650 (1.2) | 0.43 (0.09, 1.55) | ||
| NVQ or equivalent | 434/1,948 (22.3) | 4,839/21,979 (22.0) | 1.07 (0.95, 1.21) | 18/434 (4.1) | 135/4,839 (2.8) | 0.69 (0.34, 1.32) | ||
| Other professional | 1,174/6,941 (16.9) | 12,014/67,979 (17.7) | 0.97 (0.90, 1.04) | 89/1,174 (7.6) | 595/12,014 (5.0) | 0.72 (0.52, 0.98) | ||
| Annual household income, £ | 0.070 | 0.804 | ||||||
| < 18,000 | 788/4,335 (18.2) | 4,933/26,337 (18.7) | 0.99 (0.90, 1.08) | 64/788 (8.1) | 382/4,933 (7.7) | 0.71 (0.51, 0.97) | ||
| 18,000–30,999 | 563/3,244 (17.4) | 5,854/32,294 (18.1) | 1.01 (0.91, 1.12) | 33/563 (5.9) | 212/5,854 (3.6) | 1.19 (0.73, 1.87) | ||
| 31,000–51,999 | 439/2,499 (17.6) | 6,901/34,931 (19.8) | 0.89 (0.82, 0.99) | 15/439 (3.4) | 128/6,901 (1.9) | 1.06 (0.51, 2.03) | ||
| 52,000–100,000 | 274/1,492 (18.4) | 5,176/28,859 (17.9) | 1.04 (0.90, 1.20) | 4/274 (1.5) | 71/5,176 (1.4) | 0.52 (0.12, 1.68) | ||
| > 100,000 | 62/368 (16.8) | 1,313/9,289 (14.1) | 1.18 (0.87, 1.58) | 2/62 (3.2) | 13/1,313 (1.0) | 0.35 (0.01, 8.77) | ||
| (Table 2 continues on next page) | ||||||||
| Body mass index, kg/m² | 0.611 | 0.401 | ||||||
| <18.5 | 14/80 (17.5) | 85/593 (14.3) | 1.10 (0.54, 2.11) | 0/14 | 5/85 (5.9) | NA | ||
| 18.5–24.9 | 517/3,337 (0.5) | 7,648/46,835 (16.3) | 0.87 (0.77, 0.98) | 18/517 (3.5) | 155/7,648 (2.0) | 1.09 (0.59, 1.92) | ||
| 25.0–29.9 | 935/5,313 (17.6) | 11,933/65,252 (18.3) | 0.97 (0.87, 1.07) | 49/935 (5.2) | 406/11,933 (3.4) | 0.94 (0.64, 1.34) | ||
| ≥ 30·0 | 993/5,072 (19.6) | 7,840/38,234 (20.5) | 1.01 (0.93, 1.09) | 70/993 (7.0) | 424/7,840 (5.4) | 0.64 (0.46, 0.88) | ||
| Smoking status | 0.726 | 0.163 | ||||||
| Never | 1,203/6,732 (17.9) | 15,250/82,755 (18.4) | 0.99 (0.92, 1.06) | 59/1,203 (4.9) | 379/15,250 (2.5) | 1.04 (0.73, 1.45) | ||
| Previous | 962/5,334 (18.0) | 9,788/55,234 (17.7) | 1.02 (0.94, 1.10) | 62/962 (6.4) | 486/9,788 (5.0) | 0.67 (0.48, 0.93) | ||
| Current | 361/2,134 (16.9) | 2,837/14,962 (19.0) | 0.93 (0.81, 1.06) | 25/361 (6.9) | 156/2,837 (5.5) | 0.62 (0.36, 1.05) | ||
| Alcohol drinking status | 0.146 | 0.081 | ||||||
| Never | 159/848 (18.8) | 1,471/6,644 (22.1) | 0.89 (0.73, 1.08) | 17/159 (10.7) | 70/1,471 (0.3) | 1.14 (0.56, 2.22) | ||
| Previous | 226/1,220 (18.5) | 892/4,712 (18.9) | 0.99 (0.82, 1.18) | 22/226 (9.7) | 74/892 (8.3) | 0.60 (0.31, 1.11) | ||
| Current | 2,149/12,172 (17.7) | 25,640/142,343 (18.0) | 1.00 (0.95, 1.06) | 107/2,149 (5.0) | 884/25,640 (3.4) | 0.75 (0.58, 0.95) | ||
| Mental disorders a | 0.389 | 0.077 | ||||||
| No | 1,051/5,963 (17.6) | 22,137/119,924 (18.5) | 0.90 (0.84, 0.96) | 23/1,051 (2.2) | 464/22,137 (2.1) | 0.82 (0.50, 1.26) | ||
| Yes | 1,491/8,321 (17.9) | 5,898/33,965 (17.4) | 0.98 (0.91, 1.04) | 124/1,491 (8.3) | 570/5,898 (9.7) | 0.85 (0.69, 1.04) | ||
| Number of somatic comorbidities | 0.131 | < 0.001 | ||||||
| 0 | 739/4,016 (18.4) | 16,706/86,937 (19.2) | 0.93 (0.85, 1.00) | 9/739 (1.2) | 131/16,706 (0.8) | 1.52 (0.70, 2.91) | ||
| 1 | 567/3,230 (17.6) | 6118/36,409 (16.8) | 0.98 (0.89, 1.08) | 12/567 (2.1) | 231/6,118 (3.8) | 0.60 (0.31, 1.04) | ||
| 2 | 432/2,696 (16.0) | 2,702/16,718 (16.2) | 0.94 (0.84, 1.05) | 21/432 (4.9) | 227/2,702 (8.4) | 0.63 (0.38, 0.98) | ||
| ≥ 3 | 804/4,342 (18.5) | 2,509/13,825 (18.1) | 0.99 (0.91, 1.07) | 105/804 (13.1) | 445/2,509 (17.7) | 0.85 (0.67, 1.09) | ||
Data are presented as n/N (%). ORs (Odds ratio, 95% CI) were derived from logistic regression models. NA means that OR = 0 (none of the participants in the group had the event). CSE: Certificate of Secondary Education. NVQ: National Vocation Qualifications. COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. CKD, chronic kidney disease. CVD, cardiovascular disease. a Mental disorders consist of the indications for the use of psychiatric drugs, including depression, anxiety, psychotic disorder, substance misuse, multiple sclerosis, neuropathic pain, dementia/delirium, and epilepsy.