Fig. 2. Electrochemical data recorded at room temperature of equal loading nanoparticle catalysts: Pt/C (navy blue), Pd/C (crimson), Pt–Hg/C (blue), Pd–Hg/C (red) and Pt–Bi/C (green) systems on glassy carbon in Ar-saturated 0.1 M HClO₄ with 0.1 M HCOOH at 1600 rpm, unless otherwise stated. (a) FAOR CVs at 10 mV s⁻¹. (b) Base CVs in Ar-saturated 0.1 M HClO₄ at 400 rpm and 50 mV s⁻¹. (c) CA at 0.55 V_RHE for 30 min. All measurements were repeated at least three times (shade represents standard deviation), IR-compensated and post-corrected, for experimental details see ESI and Fig. S5–S8.† Note, Pt–Bi/C was unstable at higher potentials (see ESI†) hence a reduced potential range was utilized.