Table 1.
Meta-analysis characteristics of included cohort studies reporting COVID-19 and risk of diabetes.
| Author (year) | Sample size, N | Female, N (%) | Outcome (diabetes) assessment | Country | Study design | Mean age (y) | Total Case, N | Follow-up periods | Median follow-up time (D) | Reported effect sizes: HR/RR (95% CI) | Covariates in the fully-adjusted model | Quality score | COVID-19 patients | Controls |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rathmann et al. (2022) | 71,730 (35,865 pairs) | 32,732 (45.6%) | ICD-10 codes (E11-E14) | Germany | Retrospective cohort study | 42.6 | 364 | March 2020 to January 2021 | 119 | IRR: 1.28 (1.05, 1.57) | Sex, age, health insurance, index month for Covid-19 and comorbidity (obesity, hypertension, hyperlipidaemia, myocardial infarction, stroke) | 8 | 35,865 | 35,865 |
| Barret et al. (2022) | 485,358 | 243,102 (50.1%) | ICD-10 codes (E08-E13) | US | Retrospective cohort study | 12.3 | 200 | March 2020 to February 2021 | NA | HR: 2.66 (1.98, 3.56) | Matched on age, sex, and month of encounter | 7 | 80,893 | 404,465 |
| Barret et al. (2022) | 878,878 | 440,024 (50.1%) | ICD-10 codes (E08-E13) | US | Retrospective cohort study | 12.7 | 1973 | March 2020 to June 2021 | NA | HR: 1.31 (1.20, 1.44) | Age, sex, and month of encounter | 7 | 439,439 | 439,439 |
| Xie et al. (2022) | 4,299,721 | 485,021 (11.3%) | ICD-10 codes (E08.X to E13.X) or a HbA1c measurement of more than 6·4% (46 mmol/mol) | US | Cohort study | 60.9 | 134,873 | March 2020 to Sept 2021 | 352 | HR: 1.40 (1.36, 1.44) | Age, race, sex, area deprivation index, BMI, smoking status, use of long-term care, number of outpatient and inpatient encounters, and number of HbA1c measurements; comorbidities including cancer, cardiovascular disease, cerebrovascular disease, chronic lung disease, dementia, HIV, hyperlipidaemia, and peripheral artery disease; laboratory test results including estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) and HbA1c; vital signs including systolic and diastolic blood pressure; and medications including the use of steroids | 9 | 181,280 | 4,118,441 |
| Wander et al. (2022) | 2,777,768 | 376,274 (13.5%) |
(1) two or more abnormal laboratory values from plasma or serum (random glucose ≥ 200 mg/dL, fasting glucose ≥ 126 mg/dL, 2-h glucose from an oral glucose tolerance test ≥ 200 mg/dL) or whole blood (A1C ≥ 6.5%); or (2) two outpatient or one inpatient ICD-10 codes of E08–E13; or (3) receipt of an initial and one refill prescription of a glucose-lowering medication |
US | Retrospective cohort study | 59 | 9150 | March 2020 to March 2021 | 120 |
OR for male: 2.56 (2.32, 2.83) OR for female: 1.21 (0.88, 1.68) |
Age, race, ethnicity, BMI, tobacco use, and facility location | 9 | 126,710 | 2,651,058 |
| Daugherty et al. (2021) | 9,247,505 | 4,607,112 (49.8%) | ICD-10 codes | US | Retrospective cohort study | 42.4 | 1886 | January 2020 to October 2020 | 95 | HR: 2.47 (1.14, 5.37) | Propensity score matching with age, sex, socioeconomic status, race, index month, pre-existing comorbidities, total length of stay as an inpatient in the previous year, previous number of visits to a primary care physician, cardiologist, or nephrologist | 5 | 266,586 | 8,980,919 |
| Qeadan et al. (2022) | 27,292,879 | 13,755,616 (54.1%) | ICD-10 codes | US | Retrospective cohort study | 45.4 | 5163 | December 2019 to July 2021 | NA | OR: 1.42 (1.38, 1.46) | Age, gender, race and ethnicity, marital status, and US geographical region | 6 | 2,489,266 | 24,803,613 |
| Kendall et al. (2022) | 571,256 (285,628 matched pairs) | 142,288 (49.8%) | NA | US | Matched Retrospective cohort study | 9.3 | 123 | 2020 to 2021 | NA | HR: 1.83 (1.36, 2.44) | Propensity score matching with age, sex, race, ethnicity, family history of diabetes | 9 | 285,628 | 285,628 |
| McKeigure et al. (2022) | 1,849,411 | 924,706 (50%) | ICD-10 codes (E10–E14) or an outpatient consultation with specialty coded A81 for diabetes | UK | Retrospective cohort study | NA | 1074 | March 2020 to November 2021 | NA |
"RR: 0.86 (0.62, 1.21) for infection > 30 days RR: 2.62 (1.81, 3.78) for infection within 30 days |
Age, sex, and number of vaccine doses at least 14 days before | 7 | 365,080 | 1,484,331 |