Table 3.
Summary of included studies of ASC experiences.
| Induction Method | APZ (3D) | 5D-ASC | 11-ASC | HRS | MEQ30 | PCI | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pharmacological | 2C-B (4-Bromo-2,5-Dimethoxyphenethylamine) | 29,30 | |||||
| 4-FA (4-Fluoroamphetamine) | 31 | 31 | 31 | ||||
| 5-MeO-DMT (5-Methoxy-N,N- Dimethyltryptamine) | 32,33 | 34 | 35–37 | ||||
| DMT + MAO* Inhibitor (“Ayahuasca”) | 38–40 | 41 | 41 | 38,39,42–50 | 44,51,52 | ||
| DMT (N,N-Dimethyltryptamine) | 53,54 | 55 | 25,56–59 | 51,55 | |||
| DXM (Dextromethorphan) | 60 | 60,61 | 60 | ||||
| D-Amphetamine | 62 | 62 | 42,43,63 | 62 | |||
| D-Methamphetamine | 64 | ||||||
| Ergotamine | 65 | ||||||
| Ibogaine | 66 | ||||||
| Kambô (Giant Leaf Frog) | 67 | 67 | 67 | 67 | |||
| Ketamine | 68 | 53,54,69–83 | 79,84,85 | 86–89 | 85 | ||
| LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide) | 8,62,90–95 | 62,91,92,94,96–106 | 51,62,91,92,94,105 | ||||
| Mazindol | 107 | ||||||
| MDA (3,4-Methylene dioxy amphetamine) | 108,109 | 109 | |||||
| MDE (3,4-Methylenedioxyethylamphetamine) | 64,110 | ||||||
| MDMA (3,4-Methylenedioxy methamphetamine, “Ecstasy”) | 62,94,111–126 | 62,94,116–119,125 | 127 | 62,94 | |||
| Mescaline (Peyote, San Pedro cacti) | 128 | ||||||
| Psilocybin (“Magic Mushrooms”) | 64,129–131 | 65,79,83,132–146 | 60,79,141,147–159 | 60,129–131,136,137,157 | 35,51,60,136,137,152,154,160,161 | ||
| Salvinorin-A (Salvia Divinorum) | 162–165 | 162–171 | |||||
| THC (Tetrahydrocannabinol) | 172 | ||||||
| Triazolam | 61,87 | ||||||
| Non-pharmacological | Chanting (religious) | 173 | |||||
| Drumming and Dancing | 174 | 175 | |||||
| Flicker Light Stimulation | 176 | 176 | 176 | ||||
| Ganzfeld | 177,178 | 177,178 | 178,179 | ||||
| Hetero-Hypnosis | 180–187 | ||||||
| Kundalini Meditation | 188 | ||||||
| Mind Machine | 189 | ||||||
| Olfactory Epithelium Stimulus† | 190 | ||||||
| Sweat Lodge | 191 | ||||||
| Zen Meditation | 192 | ||||||
This table contains both pharmacological and non-pharmacological studies on ASC experiences, which were included in our systematic literature review and in the data extraction process. It categorizes studies according to which psychometric questionnaire was used to assess ASC experiences. Substances inducing ASC that do not have direct biological sources were named by the chemical formula; substances that are directly derived from biological sources were named by the active component and the species name. The street names of substances are in quotation marks. Three studies137,141,142 combined psilocybin administration with meditation but were included in this table only under the psilocybin category. One study158 investigated the effect of setting (physical and social environment during the ASC experience) on phenomenology without psilocybin being administered, yet it is included in this table under the psilocybin category because participants were led to believe that they were being administered psilocybin. We have not included substances in this table that were used as either active or passive controls in the cited studies (e.g., ketanserin, niacin, citalopram), while corresponding control-datasets are included in the ASDB.
*MAO: Monoamine oxidase. †Olfactory Epithelium Stimulus is not an induction method itself, but it is investigated as the mechanism underlying breathing techniques.