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The RAS–MAPK signalling pathway showing mutations that may lead to diseases such as Noonan syndrome (reproduced with permission from Zenker, 2020). Some of the pathway components exist in multiple isoforms (eg, RAS: KRAS, HRAS, NRAS, RRAS; RAF: RAF1, BRAF; SOS: SOS1, SOS2, etc). aAlso known as Noonan syndrome with multiple lentigines. CFC, cardiofaciocutaneous; MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase; P, proline; RTK, receptor tyrosine kinase enzyme; Ub, ubiquitin.
