Table 1.

List of OXPHOS inhibitors under clinical trials or potential.

OXPHOS Inhibitor	Identifier	Phase	Cancer Type	ECT Target	Ref.
Metformin	NCT04275713, NCT04414540, NCT04945148, NCT04387630	II, II, II, II	Cervical cancer, head and neck squamous cell carcinoma, glioblastoma (IDH-wildtype), breast cancer	Complex I	[92]
Phenformin	NCT03026517	I	Melanoma	Complex I	[92]
Arsenic Trioxide	NCT02066870, NCT03503864	I, II	Non-small-cell lung cancer, neuroblastoma	Complex I	[93]
Papaverine	NCT05136846, NCT03824327	I, I	Locally advanced or unresectable non-small-cell lung cancer	Complex I	[95]
Atovaquone	NCT04648033, NCT02628080	I, I	Locally advanced non-small-cell lung cancer, non-small-cell lung cancer	Complex III	[96]
Proguanil	N.A.	N.A.	Acts synergistically with atovaquone	Complex I	[97]
Pyrvinium Pamoate	NCT05055323	I	Resectable pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma	Complex I	[98]
Vitamin E	NCT01871454	II	Non-small-cell lung cancer	Complex II	[99]
ONC201	NCT04055649	II	Platinum-resistant epithelial ovarian, fallopian tube, or primary peritoneal cancer, diffuse midline gliomas	Complex I, II	[100]
Mitoxantrone	NCT04927481, NCT03839446, NCT03258320, NCT04718402	II, II, I, I	Breast cancer, acute myeloid leukemia, prostate cancer patients, advanced gastric carcinoma	Complex V	[101]
Ivermectin	N.A.	N.A.	Induces the death of renal cancer cells, chronic myeloid leukemia cells, and glioblastoma cells *	Complex I	[102]
Anonacin	N.A.	N.A.	Delays the growth of pancreatic cancer cells *	Complex I	[103]
Trifluoperazine	N.A.	N.A.	Induces pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma cell death in combination with bortezomib *	Mitochondrial Stress	[104]

* indicates that the drug has not been validated by clinical trials but has been confirmed in in vitro cell experiments and in vivo xenograft models.